• Honeybee vision and other aspects of animal behavior
• Put out poles of sugar water and colored cards next to sugar water
• Observed that bees could clearly respond to color and thus could see it
• Also discovered that honeybees can see ultraviolet light (Honeyguides)

• The phenomenon in which somatic cells, bacteria, and other single-celled or multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in the environment
• Used to find food or flee poisons

Sensation -

Perception - mental experience

• Mechanisms of action to reduce the excitability of the brain involve: 
• Voltage-gated sodium channels
• Volage-gated calcium channels
• Voltage-gated potassium channels
• GABA receptors
• Glutamate receptors
• Other neurotransmitter systems

• Severing of corpus collosum (rarely done) - prevents seizures from traveling from one hemisphere to another
• Excision of epileptic brain tissue - cutting out section of the brain where seizure is originating

General study of interaciton between drugs and the body

(from Greek word "pharmako" meaning "medicine" and "poison" at the same time)

• Sedate - to calm
• Hypnos - sleep
• In low doses, produce calmness
• An increase in dose produces sleep
• Even more leads to death
• Ex. alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, general anesthetics, inhalants

   

• Drugs that act as central nervous system depressants
• Produce a wide variety of effects, from mild sensation to total anesthesia
• They have addiction potential, both physical and psychological
• Barbiturates have now largely been replaced by benzodiazepinesin routine medical practice
• However, barbiturates are still used in general anesthesia, as well as for epilepsy

• Psychoactive drug whose chemical chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring
• Enhance the effect of GABA, which results in sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant, and amnesiac action
• Useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, and alcohol withdrawl

• Ionotropic receptor
• Sedative-hypnotic drugs increase GABA-mediated Cl- flow
• GABA opens Cl- channel (produces hypopolarization of cell and cell is less likely to produce its own signal)
• Results in global CNS inhibition inhibition (activity of brain reduced, leads to relaxation, sleep, and ultimately death)

• A comparison of the amount of a therapeutic agent that causes the therapeutic effect to the amount that causes death
• The lethal dose of a drug for 50% of the population divided by the minimum effective dose for 50% of the population
• Many sedative hypnotics have a low T.I.

• Thiopental (Pentothal) - barbiturate with low T.I., ~5 g given intravenously
• Pancuronium (Pavulon) - nicotinic AChR antagonist, muscle paralysis and respiratory failure, used in some surgical procedures to reduce movement
• Potassium Chloride - when injected into bloodstream, floods outside of nervous system quickly so action potentials can't work, beating of heart altered (induces cardiac arrest)

• 30 states have the death penalty
• All states use lethal injection

• From Erythroxylum coca plant in South America
• Numbing effect the result on an influence on synapses
• Blocks presynaptic reuptake transporters of NTs norepinephrine and dopamine
• Increases activity at these synapses (overactivity)
• Effects:  increased wakefulness, focused attention, positive mood, reduced appetite, increased heart rate/blood pressure, dilation of pupils/lung airways/nasal passages

• Brain/CNS:  increased wakefulness, stamina, focused attention, positive mood/euphoria, reduced appetite
• Autonomic nervous system:  
• Sympathomimetic effects:  increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, dilation of pupils, dilation of lung airways, dilation of nasal passages
• Problematic/toxic/lethal effects:  anxiety, irritability, impaired judgment, stimulant psychosis (delusions, hallucinations), chronic psychosis, seizure, cardiovascular damage, heart attack, stroke, addiction

• Penfield was the first to electrically record the human brain during surgery

• Hans Berger was the first to measure human EEG in 1920s
• His sister had a premonition that he had an accident while in the army
• Decided to change careers from astronomy to medicine

• As electrical field changes, magnetic field changes
• Using SQUID technology (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device)

• Positron Emission Tomography
• PET isotopes - unstable, radioactive, decay by positron (anti-electron) emission
• Applications - flourinated glucose, glucose consumption (measures how much glucose cells are eating)

• Psych professor at University of Oregon 
• Received National Metal of Science
• In Images of the Mind, Posner investigated brain localizations of cognitive functions by looking at patterns of brain activation in progressively more complex cognitive tasks

• Based on the assumption that mental observations can be measured by decomposing complex cognitive tasks in sequences of simpler tasks
• Assumes that the effect of each mental operation is additive and that it is possible to isolate the effect of a single mental operation by comparing two tasks that differ only by the presence or absence of that mental operation

• Functional magnetic resonance imaging scanner
• Giant magnet (typical strength about 4 tesla)

• Inventor, mechanical engineer, electrical engineer
• Important contributor to the birth of commercial electricity
• Best known for his work in the field of electromagnetism in the in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
• His patents and theoretical work formed the basis of modern AC electrical power systems

• Mathematician and scientist
• Geomagnetic field ~0.5 gauss

• Blood oxygen level dependent
• Represents changes in oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin from blood flow and cell metabolism

• Physicist and Nobel Laureate
• Invented the cyclotron atom smasher in 1929
• Worked at UC Berkeley

• Invented by Ernest Lawrence
• Type of particle accelerator 
• Cyclotron frequency - the frequency of a charged particle moving perpendicularly to the direction of a uniform magnetic field
• Cyclotrons accelerate charged particles using a high frequency, alternating voltage
• A perpendicular magnetic field causes particles to spiral almost in a circle so that they re-encounter the accelerating voltage many times

• Phototaxis - moving toward light
• Phototropism - bending/turning toward light

• Philosophy of the mind rooted in the common sense theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world
• Naive - not thought out
• Realism - what we see is really there
• But naive realism fails:  ex. optical illusions

• Range of human sensitivity:  ~400 nm to ~700 nm

• Rattlesnakes and other pit vipers can image infrared radiation
• Snakes can detect prey better with infrared (detect with "pit" organ)

• Polarization - vibration in only one direction or another
• Light's interaction with matter might produce polarization
• Sunlight, initially unpolarized, becomes polarized by bouncing off air molecules
• Skylight polarization pattern depends upon sun's (or moon's) position
• Honeybees, ants, beetles, other insects, and birds can detect polarization and use it to navigate

• Range of human sensitivity:  ~20 to ~20,000 hertz (vibrations per second)
• Very low frequency sound detection <10 Hz
• Very high frequency sound detection >50,000 Hz

• The SI unit of frequency defined as the number cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon