• Demonstrated in the Journal of Experimental Medicine that DNA carries genetic information
• Did not fit with people's conception at the time of the way things should be
• People thought that the genetic code must involve proteins/amino acids because they are so complex

• 1859:  The Origin of Species - the diversity of living organisms is understandable in terms of variation and natural selection
• Nature 25:  "On the Dispersal of Freshwater Bivalves" - Crick's grandfather sent material to Darwin for this study

• Pea experiments
• Showed the characteristics could be selectively bred

• "Light and Life" lecture
• Quantum physicist
• Second to Einstein

• Genes are molecules
• "One the Nature of Gene Mutations and Genes" 1935
• "Par Three:  Atomic Physics Model of Gene Mutation"

• Crystallization of tobacco mosaic virus
• UC Berkeley
• The virus is a very simple structure made of just protein and nucleic acid that has genes in it
• After crystalizing this, he discovered that the virus is mostly genes and therefore the genes have some kind of molecular regularity
• Suggestive that genes are molecules

• One of the main formulators of mathematical structure of quantum mechanics
• Inspired by a book so he wrote a book called "What is Life?"
• Thought that the molecular probing of life might actually lead to this new knowledge of nature and laws of physics

• Nobel Prize in Chemistry - 1954
• Nobel Prize in Peace - 1962
• Concern with spread of radioactive material in nuclear testing
• Tried to start movement to limit automatic weapons
• Labeled as a communist
• Published an unworkable structural model of DNA
• Distracted by accusations of communism
• In 1970, wrote about vitamin C as a treatment for the common cold

• Fundamental unit of heredity
• Sequence of nucleotides

Adenine

Cytocine

Guanine

Thymine (Uracil)

• Worked in uranium-isotope separation for the Manhattan project
• Won Nobel Prize in Physics

• A molecule of RNA encoding a chemical "blueprint" for a protein product
• Transcribed from a DNA template

• Like flushing of a toilet
• Can't refire for 1-2 seconds

• The difference in voltage between the interior and exterior of a cell

• The capacity to have mental experience/mental states
• Thoughts, feelings, perceptions, sense of self, awareness/consciousness
• Internal, subjective experiences
• No tangibility

• Can be extended to any kind of organism (pets, other animals, etc.)
• We assume that plants/objects/other things without a brain don't have the ability "to be" something, but we really don't know whether they have mental experience

• How is mind related to physical processes in the brain
• Mind is (somehow) determined by physiological process in the brain and body
• Called "physicalism" or "physical materialism" - assumes that everything in reality is in some way a product of physical processes like matter, atoms, energy, etc.

• Common structural plan
• Develop out of tissue that begins to grow in the embryo
• Can be separated into distinct domains (forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, spinal chord)

• Size of the cerebrum becomes larger and more convoluted as we approach the human brain
• Animals like elephants, dolphins, and whales have similarly complex brains as humans

• Dorsal - up
• Ventral - down
• Anterior - front
• Posterior - back
• Medial - middle

• About 200 million axons
• Fiber system connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
• Made of white matter

• "Split brain" surgery
• Separates communication between the left and right hemispheres

• Named after Sagittarius constellation (pulling bow back)
• Slice along Longitudinal fissure

• Brain uses 60% of energy needed by the body
• Sodium and potassium pumps use 60% of this energy

• Anterior cerebral artery (carries blood to frontal and dorsal regions)
• Middle cerebral artery (carries blood to cerebral cortex)
• Posterior cerebral artery (carries blood to back)

• Cingulate cortex
• Amygdala
• Hippocampus

• Cerebral cortex
• Basal ganglia
• Limbic system

• Think of as a stem (with forebrain as the flower atop the stem)

• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus

• Beneath diencephalon
• Superior calliculus
• Inferior calliculus

• Pons
• Medulla
• Cerebellum

• 12 input/output fibers sending signals to the periphery
• Go directly to the brain, not via the spinal chord
• Olfactory (1-connects to nose)
• Optic (2-connects to eyes)
• Auditory vestibular (8-connects to ears)
• Vagus (10-connects to digestive system, heart, and lungs)

• Connections to muscles (primarily from the spinal chord but also cranial nervous pathways)
• Connections to sensory organs
• Enteric nervous system (abdominal area)

• Regulates things like heart, lungs, digestive system (things we don't willfully regulate/think about)
• Sympathetic and parasympathetic

• Connections coming from spinal chord
• Regulates "fight or flight" responses
• NT = norepinephrine
• Increases/opens things things (besides bladder)

• Connections coming from vagus nerve and other cranial nerves
• Regulates "rest and digest" responses
• NT = acetylcholine
• Decreases/closes things (except stimulates bladder and intestinal motility)

• Sympathominetic - activates the sympathetic nervous system
• Parasympathalytic - blocks the parasympathetic nervous system
• Achieve essentially the same function

• Sympathalytic -blocks the sympathetic nervous system
• Parasympathamimetic - activates the parasympathetic nervous system
• Essentially achieve the same function

• Russian chemist and inventor
• Periodic table of elements first proposed in his 1869 book The Principles of Chemistry

• Oxygen - 65%
• Carbon - 18.5%
• Hyddrogen - 9.5%
• Nitrogen - 3.5%
• Calcium - 1.5%
• Phosphorus - 1%
• Sulfur - 0.2%
• Sodium - 0.2%
• Chlorine - 0.2%

• Called phospholipids because they contain phosphorus
• Kind of fat (lipid)
• Two long chains of hydrocarbons (head is hydrophilic and tail is hydrophobic)
• Can come together in water to form a stable structure called a phospholipid bilayer membrane
• Holds together well because hydrophobic inside not exposed to water
• About 5nm thick

• Primary structure - amino acid sequence
• Secondary - spatial arrangement of nearby amino acids
• Tertiary structure - total spatial arrangement of the entire protein
• The amino acid sequence of a protein completely determines its 3-D structure

• Proteins
• Lipids
• Carbohydrates
• Nucleic acids

• Adenine
• Cytosine
• Guanine
• Thymine

• Adenosine tri-phosphate
• Intracellular energy currency
• Energy storage in phosphate bonds
• Called that because of its molecular compounds (adine, ribose sugar, phosphate groups)
• Cells spend energy to make ATP and then this ATP floats around and does various things inside the cell
• Used to move ions from one side to the other against their concentration gradient

• Pump Na+ out of neuron
• Pumps K+ into neuron
• Uses ATP as an energy source because its doing this constantly
• 1 ATP used (3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in)

• Na+ outside > Na+ inside
• K+ outside < K+ inside
• Cl- outside > Cl- inside
• Ca ++ outside > Ca ++ inside
• Everything is more concentrated outside the cell except sodium potassium

• When the cell becomes more negative (more polarized relative to the resting potential) and then goes back to resting
• This can happen when a potassium channel opens because the potassium flows out (since it has a positive charge, when it leaves it makes the inside of the cell less positive)
• OR a chloride channel can open, and chloride will flow IN and this will cause more negative charge inside

• Opposite cause as hyperpolarization (more to a more positive level)
• A channel can open that allows sodium to flow through, so it carries positive charge inside, making the inside less negative)
• This would also happen if a calcium ion opened for the same reasons

• Italian physician
• Changed the thinking about electricity and the body
• Wrote book called Commentary on the Effects on Muscular Motion
• "Animal electricity" - muscles move as a result of internal electrical forces that can be triggered by external electrical stimulation

• These men appreciated that the neurons of squid had large axons
• In fact, the axons were so large that you could see the axon with the naked eye and actually get inside the axon
• Were able to measure action potential
• Happened at the same time WWII began (had to stop work during the war)
• Predicted the existence of ion channels

• Large enough to see with the naked eye
• Hodgkin and Huxley used them to measure action potential
• Huxley was messing around trying to measure the viscosity of the inside of the axon and discovered that he could stick something inside the axon and record what was going on

• Ion channels are closed at the resting potential, but when the voltage changes they will either open or close
• This makes sense because a channel is a protein which are made of long chains of amino acids which have polarities and charges so if you have a voltage across the membrane, there is an electrical charge that will tug on the protein
• If this membrane voltage changes then the force of the tug changes and it can change just enough to pop the protein into a new configuration and something will open 

• Very thick boundary layer (layers of lipid membrane hooked together by protein
• 40% phospholipid, 30% cholesterol, 30% protein
• Current idea of how CNS myelin are organized:  layers of lipid-bilayer membrane cross-linked by proteins
• Glial cells form myelin sheath in CNS
• Schwann cells form myelin sheath in PNS

• French physician and anatomist
• Discovered myelin and the nodes of Ranvier

• First 4 in CNS
• Last in PNS
• Ependymal cell
• Astrocyte
• Microglial cell
• Oligodendroglial cell
• Schwann cell

• Myelin speeds nerve impulse propagation via salutatory conduction
• Saltar = to dance (10 meters per second->100 meters per second, or 200 mph)

• Auto-immune damage to myelin
• Unknown cause (theory - body's own immune system starts attacking myelin)
• Nerve conduction impaired
• Motor and/or sensory
• Variable symptoms

• Blocks voltage-gated sodium channels
• Blocks channel opening and closing so no sodium can flow through
• No nerve signals can be sent (person is not going to live long after being infected)
• Found in so many animals because TTX is a chemical produced by bacteria living symbiotically with these animals
• When poisoned, peripheral nerves unable to generate normal action potentials
• Symptoms, numbness, muscle weakness, paralysis
• TTX does not get into the brain (cannot cross BBB)

• Renaissance physician, chemist, astrologer, and general occultist
• "Everything is a poison.  The difference between a poison and remedy depends on the dose."

• Tight junctions between cells forming the blood vessel walls
• Formation of tight junctions facilitated by astrocytes