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| anything that requiers energy: moving things in a direction they would not have moved if left alone |
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-synthesis of biochemicals like protein & nucleic acids
-active transport of molecules through cell membrane
-moving chromosomes during cell division
-growth, development, reporduction
(Everything a cell does requires energy) |
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| all energy exchanges are governed by.. |
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| 1st law of thermodinamics |
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| states energy can be exchanged from one form to another but cannot be created nor distroyed |
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different kinds of energy:
& the two types it falls under: |
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| thermal radiant mechanical chemical, fall under two types Kenetic and Potential |
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| energy is released by objects in motion and being used to do work |
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| energy is stored because of location or arrangemnt of |
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| 2nd law of thermodynamics: |
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| states when energy is converted to one form or another, some usable energy degrades to a less usable form, usually heat |
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| energy available to do work |
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| Solving for free energy equation: |
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G=H-TS
change in free energy= change in total energy- change in usable energy (temp & entropy) |
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| energy (consumed) required for the reaction |
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| Free energy was released during reaction |
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| Energy requiring reaction: |
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| the free energy of the products is greater than the free energy of the reactan |
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| enrgy realeasing reaction: |
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| the free energy of the reactant is greater than the free energy of the product |
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| chemical reactions proceed until.. |
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| represents the speed of the reaction or how fast the reactionwill achieve euqilibrium, which depends on the concentration of reactants, the temp, the amount of energy require to initiate the reaction (activation energy) |
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| Rate constant (k) depends on: |
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Definition
-concentration of reactants
-temperature
-amount of energy required to initiate the reaction (activation energy) |
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| when enery is released from glucose by the cells it is.. |
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| cells of all organisms can store energy in three ways: |
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Definition
1. enery soted in ion gradients across a biologocial memebrane (secondary active transport)
2. energy stored as electrons associated with specialized molecules called NADPH (used in photosyntheis) & NADH (used in cellular respiration
3. enery stored in covalent chemical bonds connecting phosphate groups in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) |
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| chemical work in cells involves.. |
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Definition
| adding or removing electrons form cell chemicals |
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| refers to the addition of electrons to an atom in a molecule |
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| refers to the removal of electrons from an atom in a molecule |
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| cells have molecules the specialize in "carrying" high energy electrons for use in oxidation and reduction reactions. what are the two? |
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Definition
NADPH & NADH
similar molecules iwth the same funciton of storing high energy electrons that are required for various types of chemical work in cells |
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| adenosine triphosphate (ATP) |
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Definition
| nucleotid used to make rna, also stores chemical energy in covalent bonds that connect phosphate functional groups |
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| energy is stored in ATP by... |
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Definition
| combining ADP and phosphate and released when ATP is converted back to ATP for later use in provideing a readily avialable source of energy for endergonic reaction in cells |
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| thousands of chemical reactions take place in the cell to.. |
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Definition
| build or beakdown numerous kinds of cellular molecules, for these reactions to occur at a rate fast enough to sustain life they must be catalyzed by enzymes |
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| enzymes are catalysts of biochemical reacts in cells |
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| list of enzyme catalysts of biochemical reactions in cells (6): |
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Definition
1. they speed up reactions and are highly specific
2. they are not destroyed during the reaction and can be used over and over again
3. they do not change an energy requireing reaction to one that is energy yielding
4. they are proteins (polyers of amino acids) that bind reactants and convert them to products
5. the information for making enzymes is tored as genes in DNA
6. cells make specific enzymes for each of the thousands of different kinds of chemical reactions needed to grow, develop adn reproduce. |
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| enzymes speed up reactions but.. |
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Definition
| do not affect equilibrium |
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Definition
| amount of energy needed to start a reaction |
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| exergonic reactions proceed at a signigicant rate only after.. |
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Definition
| being pushed over an energy barrier by adding a small amount of energy. the activation energy is need to change the reactants to an unsable state. enzymes are able to bind reactants in such a way that covalent bonds of reactants are stressed thus lowering the activation energy (see slide 18) |
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| for an enzyme catalyzed reaction, the reactant or molecules to be modified are referred to as.. |
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Definition
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| each type of enzyme has a unique.. |
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| 3 dimensional structure with a binding site that is a perfect fit to the substrate moleules, when bound to the active site the covalent bonds of the substrates are stressed therby lowering the activation energy and allowing conversion of substrates to product to proceed at faster rates. |
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| since enzymes are proteins, anything that laters the three dimensional structure of the protein.. |
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Definition
| may inhibit or destroy enxyme function |
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| enzymes function best in optimum conditions with respect to: |
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Definition
| substrate concentration and availability of other molecules that assist enzymes |
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| some enzymes require certain kinds of non protein molecules in order to function, which are they: |
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Definition
-prostheitc groups
-cofactors
-coenzymes |
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| are non-protein molecules with specialized functions that are permanently attached to enzymes (the iron containing heme group of hemoglobin) |
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Definition
bind to enzymes and are essential for activity
(inorganic ions such as zinc) |
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| are organic molecules such as ATP and NADH that add or remove chemical groups from substrates thereby assisting enzyme functions |
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| he rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction increases until... |
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Definition
| the active sites are saturated with substrate |
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| competing with the substrate for the active site |
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| binding elsewhere on the enzyme altering the three dimensional structure of the active site |
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| molecules that can inhibit an enzyme: |
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-competitive inhibitor
-noncompetitive inhibitor |
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| is the sum of a cells chemical reactions, both anabolic and catabolic pathways |
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| chemical reactions in cells are arranged in sequential steps called: |
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Definition
| metabolic pathways, with each step catalyzed by a specific enzyme |
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| cells have regulatory molecules that interact with.. |
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Definition
| allosteric enzymes, changing the shape of the active site and either activating or inhibiting the enzyme |
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| are typically located at an early step in a metabolic pathway so that activaton or inhibition of the enzyme regulates the activity of the pathway |
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| the location of an enzyme within diff. organelles also.. |
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| contriutes to the regulation of metabolic pathways |
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| cells of all organisms need a constants supply of.. |
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Definition
| energy to perform the work required to maintain order and stay alive |
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| enery enters most ecosystems in the form of sunligh and is converted to chemical energy through this process, converts radiant energy in sunlight to chemical energy required for organisms to live |
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| all organisms are capable of extracting energy from the carbohydrate products of photosynthesis throuh the process of |
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| cellular respriation releases energy from.. |
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| glucose with transfer to ATP |
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| requires oxygen to be able to release the maximum amount of energy from glucose |
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| without oxygen only a small amount of energy is released from glucose by a process referred to as |
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| The overal chemical equation for aerobic respiration: |
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| -G of 683 kilocalories per mole of glucose. (exergonic, release of free energy) |
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| The amount of enrgy is too large for the cell to handle during cellular respiration so it is divided into a series of chemical reactions with much smaller energy changes known as: |
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-glycolysis
-citric acid cycle
-electron transport |
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| cellular respiration formula: |
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Definition
| C6H12O6+ CO2------->CO2+6H2O+36ATP |
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Definition
| Adenosine Triphosphate, speializes in capture and transfer of free energy needed for various kinds of cell work |
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| ADP+Pi+free energy <----> ATP+H2O |
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| Energy from glycolysis and citric acid cycle are trapped in 2 diff molecules: |
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| What is the reduced for of NAD+ |
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Definition
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Definition
| nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide |
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| that carries high energy electrons for use in various cellular reactions |
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| Which releases more free energy NADH or ATP? |
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Definition
| NADH 52 kcal/mol (ATP 12kcal/mol) |
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| occurs in the cytoplasm, splits the 6 carbon glucose into 2, 3 carbon molecules of pyruvic acid |
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| How many reactions are in the glycolysis pathway? |
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Definition
| ten, each on catalyzed by a diff. specific enzyme |
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| occurs in mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. Reaction catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenes, a large enzyme complex located on the inner mitochondrial memebrane. Each of the pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis is converted to acetyl CoA with release of Co2 and production of NADH |
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| (conversion from pyruvic acid) consists of a 2 carbon fragmen that is attached to Coenzyme A, a molecule that earmarks the frament for further oxidation in the cirtic acid cycle |
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| completes the oxidation of glucose to CO2 and captures elctrons mostly on NADH (once called krebs cycle and tricarboxylic acid cycle) |
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| Citric Acid Cycle (actual cycle occurences) |
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Definition
| (2carbon) acetyl CoA molecule is attached to a 4 carbon molecules to produc citric acid, the 2 carbons (from acetyl CoA) are released as CO2 with electrons captured mostly as NADH. |
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| which processes oxidize glucose to CO2 and conserve electrons on NADH? |
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Definition
-Glycolysis
-Pyruvate oxidation
-Citric Acid Cycle |
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| Purpose of cellular respiration: |
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Definition
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| At the end of the glycoysis, pyruvate oxidation and citric acid cycle, oxygen still must play a role in oxidation of glucose how does this happen? |
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Definition
| The electrons of NADH pass through a chaing of proteins until combined with and oxygen to form H2O |
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| electron transport chain: |
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Definition
| in the cristae membrane ofmitochondria, composed mostly of proteins that accept electron and pass them on to the next member on the chain |
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| what stores energy during electron transport? |
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Definition
| proton-motive force, from the combined effect of the charge and ph gradient |
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| the free energy from electron transport is now... |
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Definition
| potential energy in the form of a porton motive force |
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| the potential energy in the proton-motive force is used for synthesis of .. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| is in the inner mitohondrial membrane, an enzyme uses energy stored in the proton motive force to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate, the kentic energy associated iwth this mechanical movment ( Atp synthase to spin like a turbine) is used for the work of making ATP |
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| During glycolysis and the citric acid cycle ATP is made by a process known as: |
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Definition
| substrate level phophorylation |
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| During electron transport ATP is made by the ATP synthase enzyme in a process referred to as: |
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| The synthesis of ATP during the during the process of light driven electrons traport in thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts: |
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| cell can synthesize ATP in 3 different ways: |
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Definition
-substrate level phosphorylation
-oxidative phosphorylation
-photophosphoylation |
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| to harvest energy in glucose in the absence of oxygen, to oxidize NADH and restor NAD+ levels in teh cytoplasm so that a small amount of ATP can be produced by glycolysis, fermentation reactions convert pyruvate to a molecule that will accept electrons from NADH so that glycolysis can proceed |
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| Different kinds of fermentation: |
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-microorganisms & certain muscle cells perform lactic acid fermentaion (when oxygen low)
-yeast & certain plant cells perform alcohol fermtation (when oxygen low) |
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| Anaerobic ALcoholic fermentation: |
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| C6H12o6 <---> 2CH3-CH2-OH+2CO2+2ATP |
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| unable to make own food, other feeding |
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| self feeding, photosynthetic organism |
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| -autorophs are producers, and are the ultimate source of carbon skeletons and chemical energy for the consumers and decomposers |
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| heterotrophs are consumers, so are decomposers |
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| reduced carbon compounds for energy |
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| photosynthetic reactions are grouped as: |
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| photo reactions and synthesis reactions |
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| pores where CO2 enters and O2 exits |
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| photosynthesis occurs in the: |
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| chloroplast of plant leaf cells |
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| take place in thylakoid membranse of the chloroplast grana, h2o is stripped of electrons releasing o2. Electrons reduce NADP+ to NADH (some atp made) |
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| take place in the stroma of the chloroplast and are referred to as the Calivn Benson Cycle, during synthesis reaction stored energy in ATP and NADPH is used to reduce CO2 to glucose |
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Definition
| a plot of the amount of light absorbed versus the wavelenght of light (chlorphyll asorbs blue 450 nm and red 680 nm) of the visible light spectrum |
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| consists of a plot of the rate of photosynthesis as a function of the wavelenght of light |
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| light contains packets of energy referred to as: |
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| photons (shorter the wavelenght the greater the energy in its photons) |
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| when a photon of sufficient energy is absorbed by a chlorphyll molecule an electron on the moleclue is raise to a higher energy state |
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| pigment molecules in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts are arrayed in..____ so that the excitation energy can be pass through a ..___ to eventually reduce a specialized electron acceptor |
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Definition
photosystems
reaction center |
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Definition
uses light energy to reduce NADPH to NADPH+H+
embeded in thylakoid membrane to reuce NADP+ |
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| (in thylakoid membrane) uses light energy to oxidize water molecules producing electrons, protons and o2 ( strip electrons from water, transport them through electron carriers to replace electrons used to reduce NADPH in photosytem 1) the oxygen released from water is the source of oxygen for all life on this planet |
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| difference in oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation: |
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Definition
-oxidative phosphorylation, the charge and ph gradient is produced by electron transport form NADH to O2 from H2O
-in photophosphorylation the charge and ph gradient is produced by light driven electron transport from H2O to NADPH |
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| light independent or dark reactions are referred to as: |
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Definition
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Definition
| energy in ATP and NADPH is used to reduce CO2 to glucose |
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| problem with ribisco in calvin benson cycle: |
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Definition
| this enzyme does not distinguish between CO2 and O2, so when the level of CO2 in leaf cells is low compared to O2, the enzyme adds O2 to RuBP decreasing the efficiency of carbon fixation (oxygenase activity) biggest problem on hot, dry days when plants must close stomata to reduce water loss leading to a reduction of CO2 entry into leaves |
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| what are two adaptations for avoiding the oxygenase problem of rubisco? |
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Definition
| C4 photosyntheis and crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) |
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Definition
| use PEP carboxylase rather than rubisco to initially fix CO2 in to an organic acid with 4 carbons, the acid is transported to another part of the leaf where CO2 is relased to enter the calive bensin cycle, in effect they pump up the co2 concentration to reduce oxygenase activity of rubisco |
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| open stomata at night to reduce water loss and take in CO2 to be fixed by PEP carboxylase. during day they keep stomta closed but can release the CO1 from orangic acids stored in the vacuole to be incorporated by rubisco in teh calivin benson cycle |
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