Term
|
Definition
All living things composed of cells
Cell is basic unit of life
Cells arise only from pre-existing cells
Cells carry genetic info in the form of DNA, passed from parent to daughter cells |
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Term
| Prokaryotes characteristics |
|
Definition
Bacteria
Cell well present in all pro.
No nucleus
Ribosomes (subunits= 30S and 50S)
No membrane-bound organelles |
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|
Term
| Eukaryotes characteristics |
|
Definition
Protists, fungi, plants, animals
Cell wall present in fungi and plants only
Nucleus
Ribosomes (subunits=40S and 60S)
Membrane-bound organelles |
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|
Term
| Fluid component of cytoplasm |
|
Definition
| Cytosol, contains free proteins, nutrients, and other solutes |
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|
Term
| Composition of cytoskeleton |
|
Definition
| Microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate fibers, and other accessory proteins |
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|
Term
| Which molecules pass through the plasma membrane easily? Which do not? |
|
Definition
| Nonpolar (hydrophobic) do, polar (hydrophilic) do not, need a carrier protein |
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|
Term
| structures of the nucleus |
|
Definition
nuclear membrane or envelope
nuclear pores
DNA, complexed with histones (which form chromosomes)
nucleolus (where rRNA synthesis occurs) |
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|
Term
| Where are free ribosomes found? Bound ribosomes? |
|
Definition
in the cytoplasm
line the outer membrane of endoplasmic reticulum |
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|
Term
| What are the functions of rough and smooth ER? |
|
Definition
rough- makes proteins for secretion and intracellular transport
smooth- involved in lipid sythesis and detoxification |
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|
Term
| Organelles that are inherited by the oocyte |
|
Definition
| Ribosomes and mitochondria |
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Term
| Semiautonomous mitochondria |
|
Definition
| contain their own DNA and ribosomes, produce some of their own proteins and can replicate by binary fission |
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|
Term
| Examples of gradients driving physiological function |
|
Definition
oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange in tissues and lungs
urine formation in kidneys
depolarization of neurons and conduction of the action potential
proton gradient in mitochondria
exchange of materials between the maternal and fetal blood across placenta |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| looks like a swollen cell |
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|
Term
Types of transport:
Passive diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated diffusion
Active Transport |
|
Definition
PD:
down gradient, no carrier, no energy, small nonpolar molecules (O2, CO2...)
O:
Down gradient, no carrier, no energy, H2O molecules
FD:
Down gradient, carrier, no energy, large nonpolar
AT:
Against gradient, carrier, requires energy, polar molecules or ions |
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|
Term
|
Definition
lower activation energy of a reaction
increase rate of the reaction
do not affect the overall change in free energy of the reaction
are not changed or consumed in the course of the reaction |
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|
Term
|
Definition
do not alter the equilibrium constant
are pH and temp sensitive, optimal activity at specific ranges
are specific for a particular reaction or class of reactions |
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|
Term
|
Definition
Metal cations (can be produced by the body)
Small organic group (must be found in the diet)--also called coenzymes |
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|
Term
| Assessment of enzyme's affinity for substrate by noting its Km (ratio of breakdown of the ES complex to its formation) |
|
Definition
Low Km=high affinity for substrate (low [S] required)
High Km=low affinity |
|
|
Term
| relationship between Km, Vmax, and [S] |
|
Definition
when reaction rate=1/2Vmax, Km=[S]
--half of the enzyme's active sites are filled
when [S] is less than Km, change in [S] greatly affects reaction rate
when [S] is larger than Km, [S] is in high concentration and V approached Vmax |
|
|
Term
| effects of temp on enzyme-catalyzed reactions |
|
Definition
rate of reactions tend to double for every 10 C increase in temp until optimal temp is reached
at higher temps, enzymes become denatured
same for pH*** |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
C and H held together by a single bond
CH4 methane
CH3CH3 ethane
CH3CH2CH3 propane
CH3CH2CH2CH3 butane
C5-pentane C6-hexane C7-heptane C8-octane
C9-nonane C10-decane C11-undecane C12-dodecane
All straight chain alkanes have the formula CnH2n+2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
identify longest backbone
number it, keeping numbers for substituents as low as possible
name substituents
assign numbers
put whole name together, alphabetize substituents |
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
C double bonded to C
rules for naming the same except end in -ene
Straight chain alkenes have general formula CnH2n
Number the backbone so that the double bond recieves the lowest number possible
Multiple double bonds must be named using prefixes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
monosubstiuted ethelynes
propylenes subsituted at the C-3 position
-CH2 group |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
C triple bonded to C
suffix -yne
straight chain alkynes have general formula CnH2n-2
Name for ethyne is acetylene almost exclusively (CH triple bonded to CH) |
|
|
Term
| What always has priority over a multiple bond when numbering a chain? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Vicinal diols vs. Geminal diols |
|
Definition
vicinal diols on adjacent carbons
geminal on same carbon, not common because they dehydrate to form carbonyls (C=O) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
functionality specified as alkoxy- prefix
(indicates presence of ether -oxy- and smaller alkyl group alk-)
generic term ether refers to diethyl ether CH3CH2OCH2CH3, commonly used as a solvent
Cyclic ethers number starts at oxygen
oxiranes are 3 membered rings commonly called epoxides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Terminal functional group, defines C-1 of backbone
-C=O
|
H |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
C-
|
C=O
|
C-
carbonyl in a ketone should recieve lowest number possible unless there is a higher priority group
named with -one
in complex molecules, carbonyl can be named with prefix oxo- |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
named with -oic, replacing -e in corresponding alkane
Terminal functional groups, numbered 1
-C=O
|
OH |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1.Mutliple bonds should be on the carbon backbone whenever possible
2.-OH is high priority over multiple bonds
3.Haloalkanes, ethers, and ketones are often given common names (methyl chloride, ethyl methyl ether, diethyl ketone)
4.Aldehydes and carboxylic acids are terminal functional groups, define C-1 and take precedence over hydroxy, -OH, and mutiple bonds
5.Remember to specify the isomer if relevant (cis/trans or R/S) |
|
|
Term
Carboxylic Acid
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
R
|
C=O
|
OH
carboxy-
-oic acid |
|
|
Term
Ester
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
R
|
C=O
|
OR
alkoxycarbonyl-
-oate |
|
|
Term
Acyl Halide
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
R
|
C=O
|
X
halocarbonyl-
-oyl halide |
|
|
Term
Amide
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Nitrile/Cynaide
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
RC(triple bond)N
cyano-
-nitrile |
|
|
Term
Aldehyde
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Ketone
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Alcohol
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Thiol
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Amine
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Imine
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Ether
(structure, prefix, suffix) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Sulfide
(structure, prefix) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Halide
(structure, prefix) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which isomers are most similar? Most unlike each other? |
|
Definition
Conformational
Structural(share only their molecular formula, atomic connectivity is different, therefore chemical and physical properties are very differnt) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Isomers
-Structural(constitutional) isomers
-Stereoisomers
-conformational isomers
-configurational isomers
-enatiomers
-diastereomers
-geometric isomers |
|
|
Term
| Stereoisomers vs. geometric isomers |
|
Definition
S: have the same atomic connections but the atoms are arranged differently in space
G: differ in their arrangment of atoms around a double bond, may have different physical properties (melting and boiling pts) |
|
|
Term
Geometric isomers:
substituents on the same side? opposite sides? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What to do if a polysubstituted double bond? which is Z? E? |
|
Definition
highest priority attached to each double bonded carbon must be determined.
Z is same side (Zame Zide)
E is opposite sides (Epposite) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
handedness, nonsuperimposable mirror images like hands
objects that are mirror images and can be superimposed |
|
|
Term
| Carbon atoms must have how many different substituents to be a chiral center? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chiral objects that are nonsuperimposable mirror images are called what? |
|
Definition
| Enatiomers, specific type of stereoisomer |
|
|
Term
| Determining chiral center's absolute configuration |
|
Definition
Assign priority
Orient the molecule in space so that H is back
procced from highest priority down, determine clockwise or counterclockwise |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
R is clockwise (R is right)
S is counterclockwise
R and S do not predict the direction of light rotation, only conventions of notation |
|
|
Term
| Direction of light can be determined only what one way? |
|
Definition
| By experiment, R and S says nothing about direction of rotation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
mixture of equal concentrations of both the + and - enantiomers
rotations cancel each other and no optical activity is observed |
|
|
Term
| Any molecule with n chiral centers has how many possible stereoisomers? |
|
Definition
| 2^n, therefore if a compound has two chiral carbon atoms, it has 4 possible stereoisomers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stereoisomers that are not mirror images, may have different physical properties (solubility) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a compound with a plane of symmetry, making it not optically active even though it possesses chiral centers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| differ only by rotation about one or more single bond, represent the compound in a slightly different position (like a person standing or sitting) |
|
|
Term
| Methyl group oriented 180 degrees from each other? 60? 120? |
|
Definition
Anti (staggered), very stable because it minimizes repulsive steric interactions, lowest energy
Gauche, must pass through 120, which is eclipsed
When the two methyl groups overlap with each other the molecule is totally eclipsed, highest energy state |
|
|
Term
| angle strain, torsional strain, and nonbonded strain |
|
Definition
when bond angles deviate from their ideal values
when cyclic molecules must assume conformations that have eclipsed interactions
when atoms or groups compete for the same space (van der Waals repulsion) |
|
|
Term
| Most stable conformation of cyclohexane? Axial vs equatorial? |
|
Definition
Chair, because all three types of strain are eliminated
Axial are perpendicular and equatorial are parallel to plane of ring |
|
|
Term
| In a boat conformation, high energy state is created from? |
|
Definition
| Eclipsed orientation of atoms, less stable |
|
|
Term
| Sterically bulky groups can prevent what on monosubstituted chairs? |
|
Definition
| the ring from adopting certain conformations, equatorial position favored because of steric repulsion (large group such as t-butyl can lock the molecule in one conformation) |
|
|
Term
| Disubstituted cycloalkanes |
|
Definition
Different isomers can exist:
if both substituents are on the same side of the ring, it is cis.
""opposite sides of the ring, it is trans. |
|
|
Term
| The farther the valence electrons are from the nucleus... |
|
Definition
| the weaker the attractive forces of the positively charged nucleus and the more likely the valence electrons are to be influenced by other atoms |
|
|
Term
Atomic number=?
Mass number =?
Neutral atom, ?=? |
|
Definition
number of protons
number of protons plus neutrons
number of protons=number of electrons |
|
|
Term
| Isotopes have the same number of what and different number of what? |
|
Definition
| same protons, different neutrons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| energy emitted as electromagnetic radiation from matter comes in discrete bundles called quanta |
|
|
Term
| Energy of an electron is related to its orbital radius: |
|
Definition
the smaller the radius, the lower the energy state of the electron
the smallest orbit an electron can have is n=1 (ground state of H electron) |
|
|
Term
| All systems tend towards what energy? They generally exist in what state? |
|
Definition
| Minimal, ground state unless subjected to extremely high temps or irradiation |
|
|
Term
| When an electron is excited to a different energy state, it quickly returns to its ground state and emits what, which then gives rise to what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When an electron is excited to a higher energy level, it must absorb energy (as the electron jumps from a level or low to high energy). This absorption is the basis for what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The magnitude for change in energy state is the same for absorption or emission between any two energy levels, what determines whether the energy goes in or out? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle |
|
Definition
| it is impossible to determine with perfect accuracy the momentum and the position of an electron simultaneously |
|
|
Term
| Pauli exclusion principle |
|
Definition
| no two electrons in a given atom can possess the same set of four quantum numbers |
|
|
Term
| Principal quantum number (n) |
|
Definition
| any positive integer, the larger the integer, the higher the energy level and radius of the electron's orbital |
|
|
Term
| The difference in energy between adjacent shells decreases as the distance from what whats? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Azimuthal quantum number (l) |
|
Definition
refers to the subshells or sublevels, for any given n the value of l can be any integer in the range of 0 to n-1
there are four subshells (s,p,d,f)
the greater value of l, the greater the energy of the subshell |
|
|
Term
| For any principal quantum number n, there will be how many possible values for l? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Magnetic quantum number (ml) |
|
Definition
specifies the particular orbital within a subshell where an electron is highly likely to be found at a given point in time
possible values are all integers from l to -l, including 0
s=1 orbital
p=3
d=5
f=7 |
|
|
Term
| For any value of l, there is how many possible values of ml? for any n? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
spin of a particle is its intrinsic angular momentum, whenever two electrons are in the same orbital they must have opposite spins (+1/2 or -1/2)
Electrons in different orbitals with the same spin are said to have parallel spins |
|
|
Term
| for any value of n, there will be a maximum of how many electrons? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pattern by which the subshells are filled and the number of electrons within each principal level and subshell |
|
|
Term
| electron configuration notation |
|
Definition
first number=principal energy level
letter=subshell
superscript=number of electrons in subshell |
|
|
Term
| Subshells are filled from what to what? |
|
Definition
| low to high energy, each subshell will fill completely before electrons begin to enter the next one |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rank subshells by increasing energy, lower the values of first and second quantum numbers, the lower the energy of the subshell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| within a given subshell, orbitals are filled such that there are a maximum number of half-filled orbitals with parallel spins |
|
|
Term
| Valence electrons are involved in ? and determine ? |
|
Definition
| bonding, chemical reactivity and properties of the element |
|
|
Term
| A elements vs. B elements |
|
Definition
A=representative elements, have either s or p sublevels as their outermost orbital
B=nonrepresentative elements, have partly filled d or f |
|
|
Term
| Trend from left to right across a period |
|
Definition
| electrons are added one at a time, electrons of the outermost shell experience an increasing amount of nuclear attraction becoming closer and more tightly bound to the nucleus |
|
|
Term
| Trend that goes down a given column |
|
Definition
| outermost electrons become less tightly bound to the nucleus because number of filled principal energy levels increases downward within each group |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one-half the distance between centers of two atoms of that element that are just touching each other |
|
|
Term
| atomic radius decreases ? and increases ? |
|
Definition
| across a period from left to right, increases down a given group (largest atomic radii is bottom of groups and in group 1) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| energy required to remove completely an electron from a gaseuos atom or ion |
|
|
Term
| first vs. second ionization energy |
|
Definition
| energy required to remove one valence electron, energy required to remove a second valence electron from a univalent ion to form a divalent ion |
|
|
Term
| trend of ionization energy |
|
Definition
| increases from left to right across a period, decreases down a group (group 1 have low ionization energies) |
|
|
Term
| Use cesium to remember trends |
|
Definition
| Largest, most metallic, least electronegative, and smallest ionization energy, and least exothermic electron affinity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous atom, represents that ease with which the atom can accept an electron |
|
|
Term
| positive electron affinity vs. negative "" |
|
Definition
| energy release when an electron is added to an atom, release of energy |
|
|
Term
| Electronegativity ("nuclear positivity") |
|
Definition
measure of attraction an atom has for chemical bonds, result of nucleus' attraction for electrons
the greater the electronegativity of an atom, the greater its attraction for bonding electrons |
|
|
Term
Electron affinity:
alkaline earths, Group IIA
halogens, Group VIIA
noble gases, Group VIII
others |
|
Definition
low EA, relatively stable because filled s
high EA, one e- results in stable octet
EA=0, already have stable octet
Other groups generally have low EA |
|
|
Term
Periodic table:
L->R
Top->Bottom
(atomic radius, ionization energy, electronegativity) |
|
Definition
L->R:
AR dec
IE inc
E inc
Top->Bottom:
AR inc
IE dec
E dec |
|
|
Term
| Elements with low ionization energies will have ? electronegativies? High? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
one loosely bound electron in outermost shell
larget atomic radii
metallic properties and high reactivity because of low ionization energy
easily lose valence e- to form univalent cations
low electronegativities
react very readily with nonmetals, especially halogens |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
possess many metallic characteristics
properties are dependent on ease with which they lose electrons
two e- in outermost shell, smaller atomic radii than alkali metals
can be removed to form divalent cations
low electronegativities and EA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
highly reactive nonmetals with seven valence e-
highly variable in physical properties
range from gas to liquid to solid at room temp
high electronegativities
flourine has highest electronegativity of all elements |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
inert gases, fairly nonreactive because of complete valence shell
high ionization energies
no electronegativities
low boiling points and gases at room temp |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
very hard, have high melting and boiling points
d electrons are held loosely by nucleus
highly malleable and conduct electricity
low ionization energies
may exist in oxidation states
form many different ionic compounds
dissolved can form complex ions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ft, pound, second
meter, kilogram, second
centimeter, gram, second |
|
|
Term
centi(c)
milli(m)
kilo(k)
micro(μ)
Mega (M)
nano (n) |
|
Definition
10^-2
10^-3
10^3
10^-6
10^6
10^-9 |
|
|
Term
| Multiplying scientific notation |
|
Definition
| multiply the mantissa and add the exponents |
|
|
Term
| Dividing scientific notation |
|
Definition
| divide the mantissa in the numerator by the mantissa in the denominator, then subtract the exponent in the denominator from the exponent in the numerator |
|
|
Term
| Scientific notation raised to a power |
|
Definition
| Raise the mantissa to that power, then multiply the exponents |
|
|
Term
| Adding and subtracting scientific notation |
|
Definition
| MUST have the same power of ten, so move decimal places, then add the mantissas |
|
|
Term
Θ=0°, sin=? cos=?
30°
45°
60°
90°
180° |
|
Definition
0: sin=0° cos=1
30: sin=1/2 cos=sqrt(3)/2
45: sin=sqrt(2)/2 cos=sqrt(2)/2
60: sin=sqrt(3)/2 cos=1/2
90: sin=1° cos=0
180: sin=0° cos=-1 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Avg veloctiy
Instantaneous veloctiy
speed |
|
Definition
ratio of diplacement over change in time
avg velocity as t->0
distance over time |
|
|
Term
acceleration
instantaneous acceleration |
|
Definition
rate of change of an object's velocity
accleration at one point of a particle's path |
|
|
Term
| At the highest point in a path, velocity=? accleration=? |
|
Definition
velocity=0
acceleration=-9.8m/s^2 |
|
|
Term
Projectile motion:
Vx=?
ax=?
Vy=? |
|
Definition
Vx=constant
ax=0
Vy=changes, 0 at top |
|
|
Term
| g decreases with height above the earth, so near the earths surface use g=? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Newton's 1st Law of motion |
|
Definition
| no change in motion unless acted upon by a net external force |
|
|
Term
| Newton's 2nd law of motion |
|
Definition
If a net force is applied to a body of mass it must be accelerating
Fnet=ma |
|
|
Term
| Newton's 3rd law of motion |
|
Definition
| for every action there is an equal but opposite reaction |
|
|
Term
| When you see Fnet=0 think... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Block on a frictionless incline feels what two forces? |
|
Definition
| gravity downwards, and normal force perpendicular to the incline |
|
|
Term
| magnitude of the gravitational force |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Torque:
Clockwise=
Counterclockwise= |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Maximum torque Θ=?
Minimum Θ=? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
equal to the coefficient of kinetic friction times normal force
always acts to oppose motion |
|
|
Term
| Centripital acceleration only causes a change in what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
speed of the object remains constant, think centripital acceleration and force (radial component of acceleration is directed towards the center)
a=v^2/r |
|
|
Term
| Nonuniform circular motion |
|
Definition
| speed of the object changes, tangential component of acceleration (resultant acceleration is not directed towards the center of the circle) |
|
|
Term
| what must always be causing circular motion? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| net reaction of photosynthesis |
|
Definition
| 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 |
|
|
Term
| Net reaction of glucose catabolism |
|
Definition
| C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nitrogenous base adenine, sugar ribose, and three weakly liked phosphate groups |
|
|
Term
| Energy of ATP is stored where? |
|
Definition
| in the covalent bonds attaching the three phospate groups, often referred to as high-energy bonds |
|
|
Term
| How much energy is released per mole of ATP? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
NAD+, NADP+, and FAD are ? during catabolic processes
NADH, NADPH, and FADH2 are ? during anabolic processes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| During glucose oxidation, hydrogen atoms are removed and most are accepted by what? |
|
Definition
| carrier coenzymes (NAD+, NADH+, and FAD) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cause other molecules to lose electrons and undergo oxidation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cause other molecules to be reduced (gain electrons) by transfering electrons to another electron acceptor |
|
|
Term
| animal cells store energy in what? |
|
Definition
| high-potential electrons in NADH and FADH2 |
|
|
Term
| degradative oxidation of glucose occurs in what two stages? |
|
Definition
| glycolysis and cellular respiration |
|
|
Term
glycolysis
(glycolytic pathway) |
|
Definition
series of reactions that leads to the oxidative breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, production of ATP, and reduction of NAD+ into NADH
all reactions occur in the cytoplasm and are mediated by specific enzymes |
|
|
Term
| net production of ATP during glycolysis |
|
Definition
2 ATP:
2 ATP are used, and 4 ATP are generated |
|
|
Term
| Net reaction for glycolysis |
|
Definition
| Glucose+2ADP+2Pi+2NAD+ -> 2Pyruvate+2ATP+2H+ +2H2O |
|
|
Term
| Two directions of pyruvate degradation |
|
Definition
| anaerobic (fermentation) and aerobic (cellular respiration) |
|
|
Term
| Lactic acid fermentation in muscle cells |
|
Definition
when the oxygen supply to muscle cells lags behind the rate of glucose catabolism, pyruvate generated is reduced to lactic acid
once oxygen supply has been replenished, lactic acid is oxidized back to pyruvate and enters cell respiration |
|
|
Term
| Cellular respiration yeilds how much ATP? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Metabolic reactions of cell respiration occur where? |
|
Definition
| in the eukaryotic mitochondrion and are catalyzed by reaction-specific enzymes |
|
|
Term
| 3 stages of cellular respiration |
|
Definition
| pyruvate decarboxylation, citric acid cycle, and electron transport chain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
pyruvate formed during glycolysis is transported from cytoplasm into mitochondrial matrix where is loses as CO2 and acteyl group that remains is transferred to coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA
during the process, NAD+ is reduced to NADH |
|
|
Term
| Citric acid cycle (Kreb's cycle or TCA cycle) |
|
Definition
two carbon acetyl group from acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to from citrate
2CO2 are released and oxaloacetate is regenerated to be used in another turn of the cycle
for every turn of the cycle, 1ATP is produced
also, NAD+ and FAD are reduced generating NADH and FADH2 |
|
|
Term
| Net reaction of citric acid cycle |
|
Definition
2Acetyl CoA + 6NAD+ + 2FAD + 2ATP + 2Pi + 4H2O
-> 4CO2 + 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 2ATP + 4H+ + 2CoA |
|
|
Term
| Location of the Electron transport chain (ETC) |
|
Definition
| inner mitochondrial membrane |
|
|
Term
| oxidative phosphorylation |
|
Definition
| ATP produced when high-energy potential electrons are transferred from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen by a series of carrier molecules |
|
|
Term
| When electrons are transferred from carrier to carrier, what is released and what is it then used for? |
|
Definition
| free energy, used to from ATP |
|
|
Term
| coupling of oxidation of NADH with phosphorylation of ADP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Where does it occur?:
Glycolysis
Fermenation
Pyruvate to acetyl CoA
TCA cycle
ETC |
|
Definition
cytoplasm
cytoplasm
mitochondrial matrix
mitochondrial matrix
inner mitochondrial membrane |
|
|
Term
How much ATP is generated?:
anaerobic vs. aerobic |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Alternate energy sources used by the body (in order): |
|
Definition
| Carbohydrates, fats, proteins |
|
|
Term
| Three topic divisions of reproduction |
|
Definition
| cell division, asexual reproduction, and sexual reproduction |
|
|
Term
| somatic (autosomal) cells vs. haploid (gamete) cells |
|
Definition
diploid number of chromosomes (46 in humans)
haploid number of chromosomes (23 in humans) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 4 stages: G1, S, G2, and M |
|
|
Term
| First three stages of cell cycle |
|
Definition
| interphase stages--occur between cell divisions |
|
|
Term
| fourth stage of cell cycle |
|
Definition
| mitosis--actual cell divison |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
intense biochemical activity and growth
cell doubles in size, and new organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, ER, and centrioles are produces
passes a restriction phase after which it is commited to continue through division |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
each chromosome is replicated so that during division a complete copy of the genome can be distributed to both daughter cells
creates two identical sister chromatids that are held together at the centromere |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cell continues to grow in size, assembly of new organelles and other cell structures continues |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can be referring to a single chromatid or a pair of chromatids attached at the centromere |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
prophase: chromosomes condense, spindles form
metaphase:chromosomes align
anaphase:sister chromosomes seperate
telophase:new nuclear membranes form |
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|
Term
| types of asexual reproduction |
|
Definition
| binary fission, budding, regeneration, and parthenogenesis |
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|
Term
| Meiosis only occurs where? |
|
Definition
| In the sex cells or "germ cells" (gametocytes) found in reproductive systems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in all the cells of the body that divide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
SEVEN UP:
Seminiferous tubules
Epididymus
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct
(Nothing)
Urethra
Penis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
spermatogonia (2N)->
primary spermatocytes (2N)->
2 secondary spermatocytes (N)->
4 spermatids (N)->
4 spermatozoa (N) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
primary oocyte (2N) ->
1 secondary oocyte and 1 polar body (N)->
meiosis II doesn't occur until fertilization (when the zona pellucida and corona radiata are penetrated by a sperm cell)
1 mature ovum and 1 polar body (N) |
|
|
Term
| Two types of chemical bonds? |
|
Definition
| ionic (electron is transferred from one atom to another) and covalent (pair of electrons is shared between two atoms) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
when two atomic orbitals combine, obtained mathematically by adding the wave functions of the atomic orbitals
if the wave functions have the same sign, low-energy bonding orbital is produced
if the wave functions have opposite signs, high-energy antibonding obrital is produced |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when a molecular orbital is formed by a head-to-head overlap |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when two p orbitals overlap in a parallel fashion |
|
|
Term
| carbon atom electron configuration |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
formed by mixing different types of orbitals:
one s and three p orbitals= four sp3 hybrid orbitals (tetrahedral, 109.5 degrees)
one s and two p orbitals= three sp2 hybrid orbitals (120 degrees)
two p orbitals are used to form a triple bond and remaining p orbital mixed with s orbital= two sp hybrid orbitals (180 degrees) |
|
|
Term
| primary, secondary, tertiary, and quartenary carbons |
|
Definition
| attached to 1,2,3, and 4 other carbons |
|
|
Term
physical properties of alkanes:
increase molecular weight (chain length), what happens to mp, bp, and density? |
|
Definition
they all increase
C1 to C4 are gases
C5 to C16 are liquids
Longer-chain compounds are waxes and harder solids |
|
|
Term
physical properties of alkanes:
increase branching, what happens to mp, bp, and density? |
|
Definition
they all decrease
greater branching reduces surface area, decreasing the weak intermolecular attractive forces (Van der Waals forces) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by halogen atoms via free-radical substitution mechanism |
|
|
Term
| pattern of stability for free radicals and carbocations |
|
Definition
| tertiary>secondary>primary>methyl |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reaction of alkanes with molecular oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water, and heat |
|
|
Term
| complete comustion of propane |
|
Definition
| C3H8 + 5O2 --> 3CO2 + 4H20 +heat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
molecule is broken down by heat, "cracking"
used to reduce the avg molecular weight of heavy oils and to increase production of more desirable volitale compounds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| like pyrolysis, when a radical transfers a hydrogen atom to another radical, producing an alkane and an alkene |
|
|
Term
| Nucleophilic substitutions |
|
Definition
the stronger the base, the stronger the nucleophile (RO->HO->RCO2->ROH>H2O)
in protic solvents, larger atoms are better nucleophiles because they can shed their solvent molecules and are more polarizable (CN->I->RO->HO->Br->Cl->F->H2O)
in aprotic solvents, nucleophilic strength is related to basicity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
weak bases make good leaving groups
they can accept an electron pair and dissociate to form a stable species
opposite of base strength in halogens (I->Br->Cl->F-) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction
rate of reaction is dependent upon only one species |
|
|
Term
| Mechanism of Sn1 reactions |
|
Definition
two steps:
dissociation of molecule into a carbocation and a good leaving group
combination of the carbocation with a strong nucleophile |
|
|
Term
| More stable cations are those that are what? |
|
Definition
more highly substituted
stability of carbocations:
tertiary>secondary?primary>methyl |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rate-determining step is the dissociation of the molecule to form a carbocation, this step is energetically unfavorable |
|
|
Term
| Highest rates of Sn1 reactions are based on what factors? |
|
Definition
structural factors(highly substituted form most stable carbocations)
solvent effects(highly polar solvents better surround and isolate ions)
nature of leaving group(weak bases dissociate more easily and increase rate of carbocation formation) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bimolecular nucelophilic substitution reaction
rate-determining step is the ONLY step and involves two molecules:
substrate and nucleophile |
|
|
Term
| Mechanism of Sn2 reactions |
|
Definition
nucleophile actively displaces the leaving group
must be a strong nucleophile and reactant cannot be sterically hindered
nucleophile attacks from back of leaving group forming a trigonal bipyramidal transition state (theoretical structure used to define a mechanism) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
single step with two reacting species:
concentration of both play a role in determining rate of reaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sterics, nucleophilic strength, leaving group ability, reaction conditions, and solvent effects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Achiral, if original compound is optically active because of chiral center, racemic mixture is produces and results in loss of optical activity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| involves a chiral transition state, if reactant is chiral, optical activity is usually retained (but inversion of configuration occurs) |
|
|
Term
Sn1 vs. Sn2:
how many steps?
favored in what solvents?
order for nucleophilic attack?
rate=?
chiral centers?
favored with what nucleophiles? |
|
Definition
Sn1:
2 steps
polar protic solvents
3>2>1>methyl
rate=k[RX]
racemic products
favored with use of bulky nucleophiles
Sn2:
1 step
polar aprotic solvents
1>2>3
rate=k[Nu][RX]
optically active/inverted products
strong nucleophiles |
|
|
Term
| Exceptions to the octet rule |
|
Definition
H-only 2 valence e-
Li and Be-bond to get 2 and 4 valence e-
B-6 valence e-
Elements beyond the 2nd row (P and S)-can expand their octet to include more than 8 e- by using d orbitals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| partially covalent and partially ionic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| atom that loses electrons becomes postiviely charged (t in cation looks like a +) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| atom that gains electrons becomes negatively charged |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| another name for ionic, its the electrostatic force of attraction between the charged ions |
|
|
Term
physical properties of ionic compounds:
mp?
bp?
conduct electricity? what states? |
|
Definition
high mp and bp
yes, in liquid and aqueous states, but not solid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
no transfer of electrons, they are shared
binding force between the two atoms results from the attraction that each electron of the shared pair has for the two positive nuclei |
|
|
Term
physical properties of covalent bonds:
mp?
conduct electricity? |
|
Definition
low mp
no, not in liquid or aqueous states or solid state |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
single bond=1
double=2
triple=3 |
|
|
Term
| bond length of covalent bond |
|
Definition
avg distance between two nuclei of atoms involved in bond
increase in number of shared pair of electrons decreases the bond length:
single>double>triple |
|
|
Term
| bond energy of covalent bonds |
|
Definition
energy required to seperate two bonded atoms
strength of a bond increases as number of shared electron pairs increases:
triple>double>single |
|
|
Term
| the more stable a structure, the ? it contributes to the resonance hybrid. The less stable, ""? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| guidlines for using formal charges with lewis structures: |
|
Definition
lewis structure with small or no formal charges is preferred over one with large formal charges
lewis structure with negative formal charges placed on more electronegative atoms is more stable than one in which the formal charges are placed on less electronegative atoms |
|
|
Term
| octet rule applies to what? never applies to what? |
|
Definition
neutral atoms, anions of C,N,O, and F only, and sometimes to halogens
never to H,Li,Be, or neutral B and Al, nor elements beyond peroid 3(d orbitals) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
between atoms with small differences in electronegativities
bonding electron pair is not shared equally, pulled more towards the element with the higher electronegativity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
atoms that has the same electronegativities
bonding e- pair shared equally
occur in diatomic molecules (H2, Cl2, O2, N2) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
shared electron pair comes from the lone pair of one of the atoms in the molecule
typically found in lewis acid-base compounds |
|
|
Term
VSEPR Theory
(valence shell electron-pair repulsion) |
|
Definition
3-D arrangement of atoms surrounding a central atom is determined by the repulsions between the bonding and the nonbonding electron pairs in the valence shell of the central atom
electron pairs arrange themselves as far apart as possible, minimizing repulsion |
|
|
Term
| steps used to predict the geometrical structure of a molecule using the VSEPR theory |
|
Definition
draw lewis structure
count total number of bonding and nonbonding e- pairs in the valence shell of central atom
arrange e- pairs around central atoms so that they are as far apart as possible |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| X--A--X linear, 180 degrees |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
X
|
A
X/ \X trigonal planar, 120 degrees |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tetrahedral, 109.5 degrees |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| trigonal bipyramidal, 90, 120, and 180 degrees |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| octahedral, 90 and 180 degrees |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
molecule with polar bonds may be polar or nonpolar, depending on the orientation of the bond dipoles
four bond dipoles pointing to the verticies of a tetrahedron cancel each other out, nonpolar molecule
if a molecule is angular in shape, two dipoles will add together, polar molecule |
|
|
Term
| types of intermolecular forces: |
|
Definition
ion-dipole interaction-dipoles dissolved in solutions where ions are present dipole dipole-dipole interactions(Van der Waals)- (energetically favorable)
hydrogen bonding-may be intra- or intermolecular positively charged H atom interacts with partial negative charge of nearby molecules
dispersion forces(Van der Waals)-electrons at any point in time are located randomly throughout the orbital(large molecules are more easily polarized, so they possess greater dispersion forces) |
|
|
Term
ionic compounds form from...?
molecular compounds form from...? |
|
Definition
combinations of elements that are likely to form ions
combinations of elements of similar electronegativity |
|
|
Term
mole (Avogadro's number)
formula for determining moles present? |
|
Definition
6.022x10^23
mol=weight of sample(g)/molar weight (g/mol) |
|
|
Term
| gram-equivalent weight (GEW) |
|
Definition
GEW=molar mass/n
n=number of H used per molecule of acid in reaction or number of OH used per molecule of base
equivalents=weight of compound/GEW |
|
|
Term
| law of constant consumption |
|
Definition
| any sample of a given compound will contain the same elements in the identical mass ration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| =mass of X in formula/formula weight of cmpd |
|
|
Term
| four categories of reactions |
|
Definition
combination (A+B->C)
decomposition (C->A+B)
single-displacement or redox (A+BC->B+AC)
double-displacement or metathesis (AB+CD->AD+CB) |
|
|
Term
ionic equation:
Zn + CuSO4 -> Cu +ZnSO4
spectator ions?
net ionic equation? |
|
Definition
Zn+ Cu+2 + SO4-2 -> Cu + Zn+2 + SO4-2
spectator ions: SO4-2
net ionic:
Zn + Cu+2 -> Cu + Zn+2 |
|
|
Term
| acids and bases combine in what reactions to produce what? |
|
Definition
| neutralization, salt and water |
|
|
Term
| Recognize if a reaction is or is not balanced by looking at: |
|
Definition
charge of each side
number of atoms of each element |
|
|
Term
| when the quantities of two reactants are given, you are dealing with what kind of problem? |
|
Definition
| limiting reactant problem |
|
|
Term
| limiting reactant vs. excess reactant |
|
Definition
limits the amount of product that can be formed in reaction
reactant that remains after all of the limiting reactant is used |
|
|
Term
| work is responsible for changing ? of an object? impulse ""? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| most common example of application of conservation of momentum |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| force needed to lift an object equals? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when you see "rate of work" or "rate of change of energy", think ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| potential energy at ground level=? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mechanical energy is conserved when ? |
|
Definition
| potential and kinetic energies remain constant |
|
|
Term
| conservative forces vs. nonconservative forces |
|
Definition
gravity, spring, electrostatic
friction |
|
|
Term
| total momentum is a vector quantity, so keep track of ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
when the net impulse of the external forces acting on a system is zero, the total momentum of the system remains constant
(automatically satisfied when there are no net external forces of when their vector sum is zero) |
|
|
Term
| collisions and conservation of momentum |
|
Definition
total momentum before the collision equals total momentum after collision
choose one direction as positive, the other is then the negative |
|
|
Term
| sign of velocity in collision problems determines its ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| completely inelastic collisions |
|
Definition
colliding bodies stick together after the collision, final velocities of the two bodies are equal
total KE before collision>total KE after (lost energy converted to heat) |
|
|
Term
| completely elastic collision |
|
Definition
KE is conserved, final velocities not necessarily equal
use both conservation of momentum and conservation of energy in elastic collisions
total KE before=total KE after |
|
|
Term
| real objects can rotate about their center of mass as the center of mass moves ? |
|
Definition
| along a simple parabolic trajectory |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| same as center of mass equation, but m is replaced with W because W=mg |
|
|
Term
| the force of gravity on an object acts through ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| measure of the random kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance |
|
|
Term
K, C°, F°:
absolute zero?
freezing pt of water?
boiling pt of water? |
|
Definition
0, -273, -460
273, 0, 32
373, 100, 212 |
|
|
Term
A change of 1K=a change of ? C°
0°C=?K |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Equation for converting Celsius to Farenheit |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When you see the symbol Δ, think ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| heat can never be transferred from a cooler body to a warmer body with doing ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| heat transferred to a body means ? |
|
Definition
| the random KE of the molecules of the body increase |
|
|
Term
| processes by which heat energy can be transferred |
|
Definition
conduction-heat transfer through molecular collisions
convection-heat transfer through mass motion of heated material
radiation-heat transfer via electromagnetic waves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Q=mcΔT
Q>0, heat gained
Q<0, heat lost
ONLY apply equation in temp ragion where no phase transition occurs |
|
|
Term
| temp is constant during ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| liquid to solid or solid to liquid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| liquid to gas or gas to liquid |
|
|
Term
| pressure of a gas on its container is due to ? |
|
Definition
| the forces of the individual molecules of the gas on the walls of the container |
|
|
Term
| the describe a physical process, two things to take into account are: |
|
Definition
| the system whose behavior is being observed and everything else (the environment) |
|
|
Term
| work in thermodynamics depends upon ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| work done by a gas on its surroundings does what to the volume of the gas? work done on the gas? |
|
Definition
increases it (positive work)
decreases it (negavtive work) |
|
|
Term
| internal energy of a system? |
|
Definition
| sum of all the potential and kinetic energies of the molecules of the system |
|
|
Term
| First law of thermodynamics |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Positive or negative:
work done by the system
work done on the system
heat flow into the system
heat flow out of the system |
|
Definition
positive
negative
postivie
negative |
|
|
Term
First law of thermodynamics:
if the process is adiabatic(Q=0), the first law becomes?
constant volume(W=0)?
closed cycle(ΔU=0)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
entropy:
pool half filled with water and half with ink
-barrier removed, and the two mix to an undiscernable level
-what happened to order of the system? entropy? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Second law of thermodynamics |
|
Definition
| in any thermodynamic process that moves from one equilibrium state to another, entropy of the system and environment together will increase or remain unchanged |
|
|
Term
entropy of an isolated system increases for ?
entropy of a system that is not isolated can decrease as long as ? |
|
Definition
all real irreversible processes
entropy of its surroundings increases a=by at least as much |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
have negligible viscosity
have steady flow rate
be incompressible
be non-turbulent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| leads to an increase in cell number without a corresponding growth in cell protoplasm |
|
|
Term
| gas exchange in the fetus occurs... |
|
Definition
| across the placenta, fetal lungs do not become functional until birth |
|
|
Term
| A small amount of blood must reach ? in order to nourish the developing fetal lungs? |
|
Definition
| the pulmonary circulation |
|
|
Term
| Adult circulation vs. fetal circulation |
|
Definition
adult:
deO blood enters rt atrium then rt vent pumps to lungs via pulmo art, gas exchange occurs and O blood is pumped to the lt atrium via pulmo veins, then to lt vent pumps into systemic circulation via aorta
fetal:
umbilical vein=oxygenated blood
umbilical art=deO blood
3 shunts from rt side to lt side circluation
ductus venosus(shunts from liver)
ductus ateriorsus(shunts from lungs)
foramen ovale(shunts from lungs) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| bone's blood supply can become infected after an injury |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
osteoclasts vs. osteoblasts
dymanic equilibrium is known as ? |
|
Definition
break down bone
build up bone
bone remodeling |
|
|
Term
Smooth, cardiac, and skeletal muscle:
striated or not?
nucleus?
voluntary or not?
type of contractions? |
|
Definition
smooth:
nonstriated, one nucleus per cell, involuntary/ANS, smooth continuous contractions
cardiac:
striated, 1-2 nuclei per cell, involuntary/ANS, strong forceful contractions
skeletal:
striated, multinucleated, volunatry/SNS, strong forceful contractions |
|
|
Term
Actin, Myosin, or Both?
H-band
I-band
A-band |
|
Definition
myosin
actin
entire myosin fiber |
|
|
Term
| shortens during contractions of sacromere |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Contraction of sarcomere:
initiation |
|
Definition
stimulated by message from SNS sent via a motor neuron, neurotransmitters depolarize the motor neuron by being released from the nerve terminal and diffusing across the synaptic cleft then binding to receptor sites on the sarcolemma
AP is generated! spreads through T tubules so the entire muscle contracts with spontaneous synchronization |
|
|
Term
Contraction of sarcomere:
shortening of the sarcomere |
|
Definition
sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+ into sarcoplasm, binds to troponin molecules causing tropomyosin strands to shift and exposing myosin binding sites on actin filaments
heads of myosin molecules move toward and bing to binding sites forming actin-myosin cross-bridges, myosin pulls actin in towards center of H zone and shortens the sarcomere
ATPase in myosin head provides energy for powerstroke that dissociates myosin from actin and myosin returns to original position so that it can bind to another actin molecule and further pull the thin filaments towards the H zone |
|
|
Term
Contraction of sarcomere:
relaxation |
|
Definition
| sacrcolemmic receptors no longer stimulated, Ca2+ pumped back into SR, new ATP binds to myosin head resulting in dissociation from thin filament, and sacromere returns to original width |
|
|
Term
| ethylene, propylene, isobutylene |
|
Definition
CH2=CH2
CH3CH=CH2
CH3
|
C=CH2
|
CH3 |
|
|
Term
Physical properties:
trans- vs. cis- |
|
Definition
trans-alkenes: higher mp, due to higher symmetry
cis-alkenes: higher bp, due to polarity
(internal alkenes have higher bp than terminal alkenes) |
|
|
Term
synthesis of alkenes:
elimination reactions |
|
Definition
carbon skeleton loses HX or molecule of water to form double bond
E1:two step process, carbocation intermediate first step, leaving group departs second step, proton removed by base(favored by same factors as Sn1)
high temps favor E1
E2:occurs in one step
strong base removes a proton while halide ion anti to the proton leaves, forming double bond
more substituted double bond formed preferentially steric hinderance doesn't greatly affect E2
strong base favors E2 over Sn2 (Sn2 is favored over E2 by weak lewis bases) |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
reduction |
|
Definition
catalytic hydrogenation
adding molecular H to double bond with aid of metal catalyst (Pa, Pd, Ni)
syn addition (two H atoms are added to the same face of the double bond) |
|
|
Term
| Reactions where one stereoisomer is favored are... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
electrophilic addition |
|
Definition
add compounds to double bonds while leaving carbon skeleton intact
may addition reactions exist, operate via same mechanism |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
addition of HX |
|
Definition
electrons of double bond act as Lewis base, react with electrophilic HX molecules
first step, carbocation intermediate after double bonds reacts with proton
second step, halide ion combines with carbocation to give alkyl halide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| addition of something to the most substituted carbon in the double bond |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
addition of X2 |
|
Definition
rapid process
double bond=nucleophile
attacks X2 molecule, intermediate carbocation forms a cyclic halonium ion, then attacked by X- giving dihalo compound
addition is anti |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
addition of H2O |
|
Definition
water can be added to alkenes under acidic conditions
double bond protonated using Markovnikov's rule, forms stable carbocation
reacts with water forming protonated alcohol, loses a proton to form alcohol
perfomed at low temp(because at high temps a dehydration occurs) |
|
|
Term
| addition of water to alkene is usually carried out indirectly using ? |
|
Definition
| mercury acetate (Hg(CH3COO)2) |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
free radical additions |
|
Definition
alternate mechanism for addition of HX
free-radical intermediates
disobey Markovnikov's rule
useful for HBr |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
hydroboration |
|
Definition
diborane(B2H6) adds readily to double bonds
boron atom=lewis acid, attached to less sterically hindered C atom
second step, oxidation hydrolysis with peroxide and aqueous base
produces alcohol with anti-Markovnikov, syn orientation |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
oxidation with potassium permanganate |
|
Definition
KMnO4, provides different types of products (depends of reaction conditions)
cold, dilute, aqueous KMnO4 produces vicinal diols (glycols, syn orientation)
hot, basic KMnO4 added to alkene then acidified, non terminal alkenes from two molar equivalents of carboxylic acid and terminal alkenes form carboxylic acid and carbon dioxide
(if nonterminal double bond is disubstituted, ketone will form) |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
oxidation with ozonolysis |
|
Definition
ozone, followed by reduction with Zn and water cleaves double bond into 2 aldehydes (or ketones)
if it is reduced with sodium borohydride (NaBH4) then two alcohols are produced |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
oxidation with peroxycarboxylic acids |
|
Definition
| peroxyacetic acid (CH3CO3H) and mcpba form oxiranes or epoxides (3-membered rings) |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkenes:
polymerization |
|
Definition
creation of long, high-molecular weight chains (polymers) composed of repeating subunits (monomers)
occurs through a radical mechanism
(formation of polyethylene from ethylene) requires high temps and pressures |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| physical properties of alkynes |
|
Definition
shorter-chain compounds are gases, bp are higher temps, internal alkynes bp are higher than terminal alkynes
terminal alkynes, fairly acidic with pKa of 25 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
triple bond can be made by elimination of two molecules of HX from a geminal or vicinal dihalide
Br
| base
CH3CCCH3 -----> CHC(trip bond)CCH3 +2HBr
| heat
Br |
|
|
Term
| synthesis of already existing alkyne: |
|
Definition
terminal trip bond converted to nucleophile and nucleophilic displacement on alkyl halide at room temp
nBuLi CH3Cl
CH(trip bond)CH -----> CH(trip)C-Li+ -----> CH(trip)CCH3 |
|
|
Term
reactions of alkynes:
reduction |
|
Definition
hydrogenated with a catalyst
partial hydrogenation (produces alkenes)
lindlar's catalyst (Pd/BaSO4 with quinoline)
cis-isomer
sodium in liquid ammonia below -33°C (Na, NH3)
produces trans-isomer via free radical mechanism |
|
|
Term
reaction with alkynes:
addition, electrophilic |
|
Definition
same manner as alkenes, Markovnikov's rule
can be stopped at alkene stage, or carried further to alkane |
|
|
Term
reaction with alkynes:
addition, free radical |
|
Definition
add just like they do to double bonds,
anti-Markovnikov orientation
reaction product is usually trans isomer because intermediate vinyl radical can isomerize to more stable form |
|
|
Term
reaction with alkynes:
hydroboration |
|
Definition
| addition is syn, boron atom adds first then boron atom is replaced with proton from acetic acid to produce cis alkene |
|
|
Term
reaction with alkynes:
oxidation |
|
Definition
cleaved with basic potassim permanganate(followed by acidification) or ozone
creates two carboxylic acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
decrease in concentration of reactants/time
increase in concentration of products/time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
exponents are not equal to the coefficients unless reaction occurs via a single step mechanism
product concentration never appears in the rate law
don't confuse rate law with equilibrium expression |
|
|
Term
| do not assume that the stochiometric coefficients are the same as... |
|
Definition
| the order of each reactant |
|
|
Term
| MCAT loves rate problems, remember to look for... |
|
Definition
| pairs of trials where concentration of only one species changes, while the other remains constant |
|
|
Term
| what is the only factor that can change the rate of a zero-order reaction? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
half life calculation
t1/2= |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| collision theory of chemical kinetics |
|
Definition
| rate of a reaction is proportional to the number of collisions per seond between the reacting molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
exothermic, gives of heat
endothermic, heat absorbed |
|
|
Term
| you can raise or lower the potential energy of products(changing ΔH) without changing... |
|
Definition
| the value of Eact forward |
|
|
Term
| rate of reaction will increase if... |
|
Definition
increase in the number of effective collisions
stabilization of the activated complex compared with reactants |
|
|
Term
| factors affecting reaction rate: |
|
Definition
reactant concentration (greater [ ] of reactants, greater # of effective collisions)
temperature (nearly all reactions will increase rate as temp increases)
medium (some reactions proceed more rapidly in aqueous solutions, others in benzene, and state of the medium may have a significant effect)
catalysts (work by lowering Ea, increase the frequency of collisions, change the orientation, donate electron density, reduce intramolecular bonding) |
|
|
Term
| when there is no net change in the concentration of products and reactants during a reversible chemical reaction... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| for dilute solutions, Keq=? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Kc=[C]^c[D]^d
-----------
[A]^a[B]^b |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
no pure solids and liquids in expression
characteristic of a given system at given temp
if value is very large compared to 1, equilibrium mixture will contain very little reactants compared to products
if value is very small compared to 1, very little products compared to reactants
value close to 1, equal amounts of reactants and products |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used to determine the direction in which a reaction at equilibrium will proceed when subjected to stress |
|
|
Term
Le Chatelier's Principle:
change in concentration |
|
Definition
increase in concentration of a species will tend to shift equilibirum away from the species added to re-establish equilibrium concentration
decreasing the concentraion of a species will tend to shift equilibirum toward the production of that species |
|
|
Term
Le Chatelier's Principle:
change in pressure or volume |
|
Definition
in a system at constant temp, change in pressure causes a change in volume, and vice versa
increase in pressure of a system will shift equilibrium so as to decrease the number of moles of gas present
if volume of the same system is increased, pressure immediately decreases and shifts toward the opposite direction |
|
|
Term
Le Chatelier's Principle:
change in temp |
|
Definition
in endothermic reations, heat is considered a reactant
in exothermic reactions, heat is considered a product
(is an exothermic system is placed in an ice bath, temp would decrease and reaction would shift to the right to replace the lost heat)
(if same system placed in boiling water bath, reaction would shift left because of increased heat) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
isolated-cannot exchange energy or matter with the surrounding
closed-can exchange energy but not matter with surroundings
open-can exchange both energy and matter with surroundings |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
isothermal-temp of system remains constant
adiabatic-no heat exchange occurs
isobaric-pressure of system reamins constant |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| form of energy that can easily transfer to or from a system |
|
|
Term
reactions that absorb heat energy (+)
reactions that release heat energy(-) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| you can only calculate q when there is ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| properties whose magnitude depends only on the inital and final states of the system, not the path of change |
|
|
Term
| types of state functions: |
|
Definition
| temp, pressure, volume, entropy, enthalpy, free energy, and internal energy |
|
|
Term
| set of standard conditions for measuring enthalpy, entropy and free energy of a reaction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do not confuse standard conditions in thermodynamics with.. |
|
Definition
| STP, standard temp and pressure in gas law calculations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| heat absorbed or evolved by the system at constant pressure |
|
|
Term
standard heat of reaction
ΔHrxn= |
|
Definition
| =(sum of ΔH products)-(sum of ΔH reactants) |
|
|
Term
| when using hess's law, make sure to... |
|
Definition
| switch signs when you reverse the equation and multiply by the correct stochiometric coefficient when doing calculations |
|
|
Term
| since it takes energy to pull two atoms apart, bond breakage is always... and bond formation is always... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| enthaply change of a reaction= |
|
Definition
| ΔHrxn=(ΔH bonds broken)-(ΔH bonds formed) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
=Sfinal-Sinitial
or
=qrev/T
(where qrev=heat added to system) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in thermodynamics, spontaneous does not necessarily mean... |
|
Definition
| instantaneous, as in kinetics |
|
|
Term
a process can occur spontaneously if the Gibbs function decreases (ΔG<0)
when will the reaction be spontaneous, not spontaneous, and in a state of equilibirum, according to ΔG? |
|
Definition
if ΔG is negative, spontaneous
if ΔG is positive, not spontaneous
if ΔG is zero, equilibrium, thus ΔH=TΔS |
|
|
Term
-ΔH and +ΔS?
+ΔH and -ΔS?
+ΔH and +ΔS?
-ΔH and -ΔS? |
|
Definition
spontaneous at all temps
nonspontaneous at all temps
spontaneous only at high temps
spontaneous only at low temps |
|
|
Term
| density is independent of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ratio of density of a substance to density of water |
|
|
Term
| same force exterted over a smaller area generates... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does pressure increase with depth below the surface of a liquid? What does it depend on? |
|
Definition
linearly
density of the liquid, not the object in the liquid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the containing vessel |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| body wholly or paritally immersed in a fluid will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid that it displaces |
|
|
Term
| archimede's principle in terms of density |
|
Definition
if the avg density of the object is less than that of the surrounding fluid, the object will float
if avg density of object is greater that that of surrounding fluid, object will sink |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
v1A1=v2A2=constant
in narrow passages, flow is faster than in wide passages |
|
|
Term
| fluid velocity vs. cross section: |
|
Definition
decreased cross section means increased velocity
increased cross section means decreased velocity |
|
|
Term
Bernoulli's equation:
for constant height (y1=y2)... |
|
Definition
| increased velocity means decreased pressure and decreased velocity means increased pressure |
|
|
Term
| remember viscosity by thinking of a person moving their hand through the air, then through a tub of water |
|
Definition
| much more difficult to move hand through water, higher viscosity and greater force required to move water out of the way |
|
|
Term
| laminar flow vs. turbulent flow |
|
Definition
thin layers of liquid sliding over one another, flow velocity is zero at the tube walls and increases throughout the layers
beyond the boundary layer, motion is highly irregular with random local circular currents called vortices and result in large increase in resistance to flow |
|
|
Term
elastic properties of solids:
young's modulus |
|
Definition
stress over strain
Y=(F/A)/(ΔL/L)
where stress is pressure, and strain is elongation per unit length |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| point beyond which a material will not return to its original dimensions once the force is removed, more stress reaches ultimate strength, then rupture occurs |
|
|
Term
elastic properties of solids:
shear modulus |
|
Definition
ratio of stress to strain
S=(F/A)/(x/h)
where x is corresponding deformation and h is movement in the direction of the force |
|
|
Term
elastic properties of solids:
bulk modulus |
|
Definition
change in pressure acting onthe surface of a solid or fluid to the change in volume that is produced
B=ΔP/(ΔV/V)
stress is ΔP and strain is ΔV/V |
|
|
Term
| fundamental unit of charge |
|
Definition
e=1.60x10^-19 C
amount of charge in both proton and electron, only proton (q=+e) and electron (q=-e) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
F=kq1q2/r
gives the force q1 on q2 = force q2 on q1 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When the distance between two charges is doubled (r^2) the force is... |
|
Definition
reduced to 1/4 of the original force
F=1/r^2 |
|
|
Term
| mass of proton vs. electron |
|
Definition
mp=1.67x10^-27 kg
me=9.11x10^-31 kg |
|
|
Term
| Gravitational attractive force |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
force on a stationary positive test charge divided by the charge
E=F/qo (units:N/C) |
|
|
Term
| A positive charge in an electric field feels a force in what direction? Negative charge? |
|
Definition
in the direction of the field
in the direction opposite the field |
|
|
Term
| field lines point toward which charge and away from which charge? |
|
Definition
toward=negative(electron)
away=positive(proton) |
|
|
Term
| electric field of positive charge vs. negative charge |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what do field lines tell us about strength of an electric field? |
|
Definition
lines closer together, stronger
lines further apart, weaker |
|
|
Term
electric fields of seperate charges add:
vectorially or algebraically? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
amount of work needed to move a positive test charge from infinity to that point divided by the test charge
V=W/qo
(units:Volts=J/C) |
|
|
Term
Electric potentials of seperate charges add:
vectorially or algebralically? |
|
Definition
| as scalars, algerbraically |
|
|
Term
| potential difference between any two points on an equipotential line is... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| regarding equipotential lines, work depends only on ? and not on ? |
|
Definition
the potential difference of the two lines
not the path |
|
|
Term
| Just like in gravity, the work required to move a mass depends only on ?, the amount of work necessary to move a charge in an electric field depends only on ? |
|
Definition
difference in height
potential difference |
|
|
Term
Electric potential energy
U= |
|
Definition
charge times electric potential
U=qV
change in EPE equals charge times change in electric potential
ΔU=qΔP |
|
|
Term
| regarding EPE (U=kqQ/r) if both charge are positive or both negative (like charges) U will be ? If one charge is positive and the other negative (unlike charges) U will be ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| electric dipole consists of... |
|
Definition
| two charges equal in magnitude and opposite sign seperated by a small distance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cyclic, have 4n+2 pi electrons, where n can be any nonnegative integer |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| have 4n electrons, destabilized |
|
|
Term
| Benzene, phenyl, benzyl and toulene |
|
Definition
Benzene is 6-membered ring with 3 double bonds
Phenyl is what a benzene group is called when named as a substituent
Benzyl is a toulene molecule that is substituted at the methyl position
Toulene is a benzene mono-substituted with a methyl group |
|
|
Term
ortho- or o-
meta- or m-
para- or p- |
|
Definition
ortho- is 1,2-disubstituted
meta- is 1,3-disubstituted
para- is 1,4-disubstituted |
|
|
Term
Reactions of aromatic compounds:
electrophilic aromatic substitutions-
halogenation |
|
Definition
aromatic ring reacts with bromine or chlorine
in the presence of a lewis acid (FeCl3, FeBr3, AlCl3)
produces monosubstituted products |
|
|
Term
Reactions of aromatic compounds:
electrophilic aromatic substitutions-
sulfonation |
|
Definition
aromatic ring reacts with fuming sulfuric acid (mixture of sulfuric acid and sulfur trioxide: H2SO4/SO3)
forms sulfonic acids
Ph-SO3H |
|
|
Term
Reactions of aromatic compounds:
electrophilic aromatic substitutions-
nitration |
|
Definition
mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids creates nitronium ion (NO2+), strong electrophile
reacts to produce nitro compounds
Ph-NO2 |
|
|
Term
Reactions of aromatic compounds:
electrophilic aromatic substitutions-
acylation(Friedel-Crafts Reactions) |
|
Definition
carbocation electrophile (acyl group) incorporated into aromatic ring catalyzed by lewis acid, like AlCl3
Ph-C=O + HCl
|
CH3 |
|
|
Term
Reactions of aromatic compounds:
electrophilic aromatic substitutions-
subsituent effects |
|
Definition
substituents have strong influence on what position on the ring an incoming electrophile will attack
Activating: ortho/para-directing substituents, electron donating
(NH2, NR2, OH, NHCOR, OR, OCOR, and R)
Deactivating: ortho/para-directing subsituents, weakly electron withdrawing
(F, Cl, Br, I)
Deactivating: meta-directing substituents, electron withdrawing
(NO2, SO3H, carbonyl compounds[COOH, COOR, COR, and CHO]) |
|
|
Term
Reactions of aromatic compounds:
reduction-
catalytic reduction |
|
Definition
benzene rings reduced by catalytic hydrogenation under elevated temp and pressure, yields cyclohexane
Ru or Rh on C most common catalysts, can also use Pt or Pd |
|
|
Term
| saliva contains the enzyme...which does what? |
|
Definition
salivary amylase(ptyalin)
hyrdolyzes starch into simple sugars |
|
|
Term
| inital contraction of the esophagus is ... |
|
Definition
| voluntary until irritated, then involuntary peristalsis proceeds |
|
|
Term
| Three types of secretory cells in the gastric glands: |
|
Definition
| mucous, chief, and parietal cells |
|
|
Term
| chief cells secrete...and parietal cells secrete... |
|
Definition
pepsinogen and intrinsic factor
HCl, facilitates the conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin |
|
|
Term
| pyloric glands secrete... |
|
Definition
| gastrin, stimulates the gastric glands to secrete more HCl and stimulates muscle contractions of the stomach |
|
|
Term
| nutrient absorption occurs in the...but alcohol and certian drugs can be absorbed into the... |
|
Definition
small intestines
systemic circulation through capillaries in the stomach wall |
|
|
Term
| most digestion occurs where? what organs secretions mix there? |
|
Definition
duodenum
intestinal glands, pancreas, liver, gall bladder mix with acidic chyme from stomach |
|
|
Term
| what hormone released by the duodenum stimulates the release of what secretion from the pancreas? |
|
Definition
secretin
pancreatic juice-alkaline, helps neutralize acidity of chyme |
|
|
Term
| "good" functions of cholesterol: |
|
Definition
| contributor to fluidity of cell membranes and key component of bile |
|
|
Term
digestive processes:
parasympathetic NS vs. sympathetic NS |
|
Definition
stimulates digestion
inhibits digestion |
|
|
Term
| majority of nutrient absorption occurs in... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
types of absorption:
monosaccharides?
amino acids? |
|
Definition
active transport and facilitated diffusion
active transport |
|
|
Term
Digestive enzymes:
those that breakdown carbohydrates
(enzyme, site of production, site of function, function) |
|
Definition
salivary amylase, salivary glands, mouth, hydrolyze starch into maltose
pancreatic amylase, pancreas, small intestines, hydrolyze starch to maltose
maltase, intestinal glands, small intestine, hydrolyze maltose to 2 glucose
sucrase, intestinal glands, small intestine, hyrdolyze sucrose to glucose and fructose
lactase, intestinal glands, small intestine, hydrolyze lactose to glucose and galactose |
|
|
Term
| Digestive enzymes: those that breakdown proteins (enzyme, site of production, site of function, function) |
|
Definition
| pepsin, gastric glands, stomach, hydrolyze specific peptide bonds trypsin, pancreas, small intestine, hydrolyze specific peptide bonds and converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin chymotrypsin, pancreas, small intestine, hyrdolyze specific peptide bonds |
|
|
Term
Digestive enzymes:
those that breakdown lipids
(enzyme, site of production, site of function, function) |
|
Definition
bile*(not an enzyme), liver, small intestine, emulsifies fats
lipase, pancreas, small intestine, hydrolyze lipids |
|
|
Term
| no digestion occurs in what part of the GI tract? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| accessory organs in digestion: |
|
Definition
liver-many functions
gall bladder-responsible for storage and secretion of excess bile
pancreas-acts as an exocrine gland during digestion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lowers the surface tension of the alveoli and facilitates gas exchange across the membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| common result of penetrating injury to the chest, air enters the intrapleural space increasing pressure and collapsing the lung |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
inhalation-diaphragm contracts and flattens, thoraic cavity increases volume, reduces intrapleural pressure, negative-pressure breathing(air drawn in by vacuum)
exhalation-passive process, lungs highlt elastic and recoil to original position after inhalation, diaphragm relaxes, decrease in thoraic cavity volume, and increase in intrapleural space pressure, lungs deflate |
|
|
Term
| ventilation regulated by... |
|
Definition
| neurons located in the medulla oblongata |
|
|
Term
| change in pH or partial pressure of CO2, ex. partial pressure of CO2 rises, what happens to the rate of ventilation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| vital capacity vs. tidal volume |
|
Definition
max amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled and exhaled from lungs
amount of air normally inhaled and exhaled from lungs with each breath |
|
|
Term
| residual volume vs. expiratory reserve volume |
|
Definition
air that always remains in lungs which prevents alveoli from collapsing
volume of air that can still be forcibly exhaled following normal exhalation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| vital capacity plus residual volume |
|
|
Term
| gas exchange occurs where during respiration? |
|
Definition
| by diffusion, across a dense network of pulmonary capillaries surrounding the alveoli |
|
|
Term
| gas exchange in the lungs moves from...to...? |
|
Definition
| regions of higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
deO blood from heart(lower pp of O2) travels pulmonary artery-->O2 diffuses down its gradient into capillaries---->O blood returns to heart via pulmonary veins
CO2 flows from capillaries to alveoli during this process |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
phenol
resonance through the ring gives them special properties |
|
|
Term
physical properties:
alcohols |
|
Definition
higher bp due to hydrogen bonding
hydroxyl hydrogen atom, weakly acidic, can dissociate into protons and alkoxy ions |
|
|
Term
| hydrogen bonds form on the "phone" |
|
Definition
FON, flourine, oxygen, and nitrogen
HF, high electronegativity cause HF bond to be highly polarized, strong hydrogen bond |
|
|
Term
strong acids have...Ka and ...pKa
phenol has the smallest pKa, so it is the...acidic |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| acidity...as more alkyl groups are attached |
|
Definition
decreases, because electron-donating alkyl groups destabilize the alkoxide anion
(electron-withdrawing groups stabilize the alkoxy anion making the alcohol more acidic) |
|
|
Term
| "Big Three" mechanisms for alcohols and ethers |
|
Definition
Sn1,Sn2:Nucleophilic subsitution
CH3Br +OH- --> CH3OH + Br-
Electrophilic Addition to a Double Bond
H2O + H2C=CH2 --> H3C-CH2OH
Nucleophilic Addition to a Carbonyl
CH3MgBr + CH3CH2C=O --> CH3CH2C-OH
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CH3 |
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Term
| more bonds to oxygen=more ? |
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Definition
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Term
?
--------->
1°alcohols<->aldehydes<->carboxylic acids
2°alcohols<-> ketones
<----------
? |
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Definition
Oxidation---->
Reduction<---- |
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Term
sythesis of alcohols:
addition reactions |
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Definition
prepared via several reactions that involve addition of water to double bonds
also from addition of organometallic compounds to carbonyl groups |
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Term
sythesis of alcohols:
Sn1 and Sn2 |
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Definition
| used to produce alcohols under proper conditions |
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Term
sythesis of alcohols:
reduction reactions
CH3C=O LAH
| ------> ?
OH H3O+
NaBH4
CH3C=O ------> ?
H30+ |
|
Definition
prepared from reduction of aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, or esters
LiAlH4 (LAH) and NaBH4 most frequent reducing reagents
LAH reduces carboxylic acids and esters
NaBH4 will not
CH3COH
CH3CH
|
OH |
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Term
sythesis of alcohols:
phenol sythesis |
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Definition
synthesized from arylsulfonic acid with hot NaOH
or via hydrolysis of dizonium salts |
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Term
Reactions with alcohols:
elimination reactions |
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Definition
dehyrated in strongly acidic solution(H2SO4)
to produce alkenes
mechanism is E1, so it will form the most stable(i.e.,most substituted) carbocation |
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Term
Reactions with alcohols:
substitution reactions |
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Definition
transfrom the hydroxyl group into a better leaving group:
-protonate it (water)for Sn1
-convert it to a tosylate for Sn2
-form an inorganic ester for Sn2 |
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Term
| phenols are good substrates for electrophilic aromatic substitution because the -OH is... |
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Definition
| activating and o,p directing |
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Term
Reactions with alcohols:
oxidation reactions |
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Definition
need some form of Cr(VI) as oxidizing agent, PCC commonly used
converts primary alcohols to aldehydes without overoxidation to the acid
also used to form ketones from 2°alcohols
3°alcohols cannot be oxidized for valence reasons
Can also use Na or K dichromate salt(secondary alcohol to ketone, primary to carboxylic acid)
Cr03 with H2SO4 in acteone(Jones reagent) does the same |
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Term
| when you see transition metals with lots of O (Cr207, Cr03, Mn04) think.... |
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Definition
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Term
| smaller rings have...angle strain and are...stable |
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Definition
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Term
| physical properties of ethers |
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Definition
low bp, no H-bonding
slightly polar, only slightly soluble in water
use frequently as solvents because they are rather inert |
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Term
synthesis of ether:
williamson ether synthesis |
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Definition
reaction of metal alkoxides with primary alkyl halides or tosylate
alkoxides=nucleophile, displace halide or tosylate via Sn2 reaction
oxidation of alkene with mcpba will produce oxirane(epoxide) |
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Term
reactions with ether:
peroxide formation |
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Definition
| reacts with oxygen in air to form peroxides (ROOR) |
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Term
reactions with ether:
cleavage |
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Definition
high temps and in presence of HBr or HI
initiated by protonation of ether oxygen
reaction proceeds by Sn1 or Sn2 mechanism, depending on structure and conditions
products are an alcohol and an alkyl halide |
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Term
| remember that strong bases are poor leaving groups, without protonation of the O in an ether, the leaving group would be.... |
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Definition
| an alkoxide, strongly basic and reaction would not proceed |
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Term
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Definition
suceptible to Sn2, can be catalyzed by acid or base
in asymmetrical epoxides the most substituted carbon is nucleophilically attacked in presence of acid and least substituted in presence of base |
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Term
| base-catalyzed cleavage vs. acid-catalyzed cleavage |
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Definition
most Sn2 character, occurs in cyclic ethers at least hindered carbon, best nucleophile
most Sn1, but some Sn2 character, both straight chain and cyclic ethers, most substituted carbon target for nucleophilic attack |
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Term
| common names for the first five aldehydes: |
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Definition
| formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, and valeraldehyde |
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Term
| carbonyl groups have a dipole moment. which atom is the more electronegative? |
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Definition
| O,it pulls the e- away from carbon |
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Term
| dipole-dipole interaction elevate the bp in aldehydes and ketones, but not as much as in alcohols because there is no... |
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Definition
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Term
| three most common syntheses of aldehydes and ketones |
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Definition
oxidation of alcohols:
aldehyde=primary alcholos
ketone=secondary alcohols
usually performed with PCC, Na or K dichromate, or jones reagents
Ozonolysis of alkenes:
double bonds are oxidatively cleaved to yeild aldehydes and/or ketones with ozone(2 products are yeilded)
Friedel-crafts acylation:
produces ketones of the form R-CO-Ar |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
enolization and reaction of enols |
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Definition
two isomers that exist in solution:keto form and enol form
differ in placement of proton (tautomers)
CH3C=0 <---> CH3C=CH2
| |
CH3 OH
process of intercoverting from keto to enol is called enolization |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
Michael addition |
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Definition
enolate carbanion created with LDA or KH
reacts via Sn2 with carbonyl compounds |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
addition reactions |
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Definition
nucleophilic addition to carbonyl because carbonyl carbon is good target for nucleophilic attack
when that C is attacked, C=O bond breaks, generates tetrahedral intermediate and O- will accept proton to become a -OH |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
hydration |
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Definition
form gem-diols (1,1-diols)
water is nucleophile, reaction is slow
rate may be increased by addition of small amount of acid or base |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
acetal and ketal formation |
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Definition
similar to hydration, treated with alcohols
when one equivlent of alcohol is added, hemiacetal and hemiketal are formed (-OR and -OH groups)
when 2 equivalents are added, acetal and ketal are formed (two -OR groups) |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
reaction with HCN |
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Definition
produce stable compounds called cyanohydrins
gains stability from newly formed C-C bond |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
condensation with ammonia derivatives |
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Definition
ammonia adds to C and water is lost=imine
(N=C)
other cases, common ammonia derivaties that react are H2NOH, H2NNH2, H2NNHCONH2, to form oximes, hydrazones, and semicarbazones |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
aldol condesation
heated? |
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Definition
aldehyde acts as both nucleophile (enol) and target substrate (keto)
forms an aldol, compound with both aldehyde and alcohol
when heated, can undergo elimination and lose H2), forming double bond |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
Wittig reaction |
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Definition
forms C=C from C=O
first step, reaction with ylide yeilds betaine intermediate, then decomposes into alkene and TPO
this decomposition is driven by strength of P-O bond |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
oxidation and reduction |
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Definition
more oxidized than alcohols but less than carboxylic acids
aldehydes can be oxidized with KMnO4, CrO3, AgO2, or H2O2
-product is carboxylic acid
aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to alcohols with LAH or NaBH4 |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
wolf-kishner reduction |
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Definition
completely reduced to alkane
H2NNH2 (converted to hydrazone) then heated and basic solution (forms alkane) |
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Term
reactions with aldehydes and ketones:
Clemmensen reduction |
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Definition
heated with amalgamated zinc (Hg(Zn))
in HCl
produces alkane |
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Term
| STP (standard temp and pressure) |
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Definition
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Term
| STP vs. standard conditions |
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Definition
0°C (273 K)and 1 atm, used for gas law calculations
25°C (298 K)and 1 atm, used when measuring standard enthalpy, entropy, free energy and voltage |
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Term
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Definition
at constant temo, P1V1=P2V2
pressure and volume are inversely related, so when one increases the other decreases |
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Term
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Definition
at constant pressure, V1/T1=V2/T2
volume and temp are directly proportional, so when one increases the other increases |
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Term
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Definition
for all gases at constant temp and pressure, n1/V1=n2/V2
volume of gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas present |
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Term
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Definition
PV=nRT
R=8.314J/K*mol under STP where 1 mol=22.4L
or 8.21x10^-2 L*atm/mol*K |
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Term
| good approximations can still be made from the ideal gas law at ? temp and ? pressures |
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Definition
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Term
| Dalton's law of partial pressures |
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Definition
total pressure of gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the individual components:
Pt=Pa+Pb+Pc... |
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Term
| partia, pressure of a gas can be determined by... |
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Definition
Pa=PtXa
where Xa=moles of A/total moles |
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Term
ideal gas law:
deviations due to pressure |
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Definition
| increased pressure pushes particles closer together, intermolecular attraction forces become more and more significant until gas condenses into a liquid state |
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Term
ideal gas law:
deviations due to temp |
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Definition
| decreased temp, avg velocity of gas molecules decreases and attractive intermolecular forces become increasingly significant, eventually gas condenses to liquid state |
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Term
| Van der Waals equation of state |
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Definition
(P+n^2a/V^2)(V-nb)=nRT
where if a and b (physical constants) are both zero, ideal gas law is reduced |
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Term
Ideal gas law:
as the temp becomes severly low or the pressure becomes extremely high, the actual volume... |
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Definition
| of the gas will be less that that predicted by the ideal gas law |
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Term
Kinetic molecular theory of gases:
5 assumptions |
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Definition
1.gases made up of particles whose volumes are negligible compared to container volume
2.gas atoms/molecules exhibit no intermolecular attractions or repulsions
3.gas particles are continuous, random motion undergoing collisions with each other and container walls
4.collisions between two gas particles are elastic, no overall gain or loss of energy
5.avg KE of gas particle proportional to absolute temp of the gas, same for all gases at a given temp |
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Term
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Definition
KE=1/2mv^2=3/2kT
c=(3RT/MM)^(1/2)
where R=gas constant and MM=molecular mass |
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Term
| rates of diffusion and effusion: |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| crystalline vs. amorphous solids |
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Definition
ordered structure, repeating patterns of atoms, ions, or molecules
no ordered 3-D arrangement but molecules are fixed in place |
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Term
| evaporation (vaporization) vs. condensation |
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Definition
liquid to gas
gas to liquid |
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Term
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Definition
pressure that the gas exerts over the liquid once equilibirium is reached
is VP increases, temp increases |
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Term
| fusion or melting vs. solidification, crystallization, freezing |
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Definition
solid to liquid
liquid to solid |
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Term
| sublimation vs. deposition |
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Definition
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Term
| for phase change equilibria to occur, ΔG must =? |
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Definition
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Term
| gas phase, solid phase, liquid phase: high or low temp? high or low pressure? |
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Definition
| gas: high temp, low pressure solid:low temp, high pressure liquid:high temp and pressure |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
formulas for calculating:
freezing-point depression?
boiling-point elevation? |
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Definition
ΔTf=Kfm
ΔTb=Kbm
where K=proportionality constant characteristic of a particular solvent
and m=the molality of the solution (mol solute/kg solvent) |
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Term
| During osmosis, water will move toward the chamber with... |
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Definition
| either greater molarity or higher temp(is molarity is the same) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| magnetic fields are created by... |
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Definition
| moving charges and permanent magnets, exert forces on moving charges and permanent magnets |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
force on a moving charge
F=? |
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Definition
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Term
| when charge moves parallel(Θ=0°) or antiparallel(Θ=180°) to a magnetic field, magnetic force=? |
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Definition
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Term
| right hand rule for direction of magnetic force on a moving charge: |
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Definition
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Term
| magnetic force on a moving charge particle is always perpendicular to... |
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Definition
velocity and direction of magnetic field
therefore, magnetic force does no work |
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Term
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Definition
i=Δq/Δt
in the direction that positive charges would flow, from high to low potential, so it is opposite the direction of electron flow |
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Term
| right hand rule for magnetic force on currents |
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Definition
thumb=current (i)
fingers=B
palm=F |
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Term
| magnetic field lines emerge at which pole and enter at which pole? |
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Definition
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Term
| magnetic field of a current carrying wire |
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Definition
| vector sum of the magnetic fields due to the individual moving charges that comprise the current |
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Term
| right hand rule to find the direction of the magnetic field produced by a long straight wire |
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Definition
thumb=current
fingers=curl around the wire in direction of B |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| resistance of a conductor is dependent on what three factors? |
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Definition
size, type of material, and temperature
(L and A, ρ, and T) |
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Term
| resistance of a wire increases with increased ? and decreases with increased ? |
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Definition
length
cross-sectional area |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| most conductors have greater resistance at ? temp, due to ? |
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Definition
higher
increased thermal collisions of atoms, produces a greater resistance to electron flow |
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Term
Power dissipated by a resistor
P=? |
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Definition
rate at which energy loss occurs
P=iV
(P=i^2R=V^2/R) |
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Term
|
Definition
at any pt or junction in a circuit, sum of currents into that point equals sum of currents out of that point
(conservation of charge, energy lost in resistors is gained back in battery)
sum of voltages is equal to sum of voltage drops around a closed ciruit loop (sum of voltages=0) |
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Term
| Voltage drops and resistors add in... |
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Definition
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Term
| each additional resistor in a series of resistors increases ? and thus decreases ? |
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Definition
total resistance
total current |
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Term
| resistors add as reciprocals in... |
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Definition
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Term
| each additional resistor added in parallel decreases ? and thus increases ? |
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Definition
total resistance
total current |
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Term
| resistors experience the same voltage drop in... |
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Definition
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Term
| charge collects on a capacitor anytime there is... |
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Definition
| a potential difference between the plates |
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Term
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Definition
C=Q/V
unit=farad F=1coulomb/volt |
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Term
parallel plate capacitor
C=? |
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Definition
C=εoA/d
where εo=8.85x10^-12F/m |
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Term
parallel plate capacitor:
direction of the electric field at any point between the plates it toward the ? and away from the ? |
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Definition
negative plate
positive plate |
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Term
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Definition
| insulating materials that increase the capacitance when inserted between two plates of a charged capacitor |
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Term
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Definition
lowering voltage across the charged-capacitor to "make room" for even more charge
they increase the capacitance of the capacitor |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| each capacitor added in parallel acts in increase? |
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Definition
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Term
| voltage across capacitors is the same and equal in... |
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Definition
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Term
| capacitors add as reciprocals in... |
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Definition
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Term
total voltage is the sum of individual voltages for capacitors in...
(voltages add) |
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Definition
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Term
| each capacitor added in series acts to decrease the ? |
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Definition
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Term
summary of circuit element addition:
series?
parallel? |
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Definition
series:
Rs=R1+R2+R3...
1/Cs=1/C1+1/C2+1/C3...
parallel:
1/Rp=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3...
Cp=C1+C2+C3... |
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Term
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Definition
| changes its direction of flow periodically |
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Term
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Definition
| zero, half the time its positive, cancelled out by the other half the time its negative |
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Term
| root-mean-square current (RMS) |
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Definition
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Term
| avg power in AC circuit is... |
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Definition
| not zero, since P=i^2R and i^2 is always positive |
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Term
voltage in AC circuits
rms voltage? |
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Definition
sinusodial, changes sign back and forth constantly
calculate rms voltage by:
Vrms=Vmax/(sqrt2) |
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Term
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Definition
sys:
ventricles contract
dia:
cardiac muscle relaxation(blood drains into all 4 chambers)
together, it makes up the heart beat |
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Term
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Definition
| CO=heart rate(# beats/min) x stroke volume (volume out of left ventricle/contraction) |
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Term
heart rate:
PNS vs. SNS
(nerve innervation, inc or dec rate?) |
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Definition
PNS:
vagus nerve, dec heart rate
SNS:
cervical and upper thoracic ganglia, inc heart rate |
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Term
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Definition
| force per unit area that blood exerts on walls of blood vessels |
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Term
| blood type, antigen, and antibodies |
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Definition
A, A, anti-B
B, B, anti-A
AB, A and B, none
O, none, anti-A and anti-B |
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Term
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Definition
Rh+, have antigen
Rh-, don't have antigen |
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Term
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Definition
allosteric relationship between concentrations of CO2, H+, and O2
inc H+ (inc pH) and inc CO2 (inc HCO3-)= dec in hemoglobin O2 affinity |
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Term
| what two types of pressure balance exchange of material in blood? |
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Definition
| osmotic and hydrostatic pressure |
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Term
hydrostatic pressure:
arteriole end vs. interstitial fluid
movement? |
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Definition
| higher at arteriole end, causes fluid to move out of capillaries at arteriole end |
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Term
osmotic pressure:
venule end vs. interstitial fluid
movement? |
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Definition
| higher solute concentration at venule end (in blood) than in tissues, fluid moves into capillaries at venule end |
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Term
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Definition
afferent arteriole (in), glomerulus, efferent arteriole (out)
bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, descending limb of loop of henle, ascending limb of loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct |
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Term
| which part of nephron runs through the medulla? cortex? |
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Definition
medulla:loop of henle
cortex: bowman's capsule and convoluted tubules |
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Term
nephron:
filtration, secretion, reabsorption |
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Definition
filt: 20% of fluid and small solutes becomes filtrate, moves from glomerulus into BC
sec:from tissues into filtrate (acids, bases, ions)
reab:from filtrate into blood (water and essential substances) |
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Term
| maintain bloodstream's solute concentration through: |
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Definition
selective permeability: proximal tubule and desc limb of LOH are permeable to water, asc limb of LOH permeable to salts only, and collecting duct permeable to water and ures, and slightly to salts in presence of ADH
osmolarity gradient: solutes enter and exit regularly which creates gradient, tissue osmolarity increases from cortex to inner medulla
flow of filtrate:same concepts |
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Term
| 2 hormones that regulate urine formation and water reabsorption: |
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Definition
aldesterone: produced in adrenal cortex, stimulates reabsorption of Na+ (which inc water reab, which then inc blood volume and then inc blood pressure) and stimulates secretion of K+
ADH: produced in hypothalamus, stored in posterior pituitary, inc water reab., acts on the collecting ducts by inc permeability to water |
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Term
carboxylic acids:
first 3 common names |
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Definition
C1-formic acid
C2-acetic acid
C3-propionic acid |
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Term
| physical properties of carboxylic acids |
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Definition
| polar, can form H-bonds, high BP, acidic (due to resonance stabilization) |
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Term
| stabilize negative charge and increase acidity of carboxylic acids by: |
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Definition
electron-withdrawing groups (halides) or groups that allow more resonance stabilization (benzyl or allyl substitutes)
the more of these groups and the closer to the acid, the stronger the acid |
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Term
| beta-dicarboxylic acids have high acidity of: |
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Definition
| alpha-hydrogens located between two carboxyl groups, stabilized carbanion w/ loss of H because electron-withdrawing effects |
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Term
synthesis of carboxylic acids:
oxidation |
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Definition
oxidation of aldehydes, primary alcohols, and certian alkylbenzenes
oxidant=KMnO4
secondary and tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized to carb acids because of valence limitations |
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Term
sythesis of carboxylic acids:
carbonation of organometallic reagents |
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Definition
grinard reagents, react with CO2
tertiary alkyl halides->carb acids
*adds one C to the chain |
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Term
synthesis of carboxylic acids:
hyrdolysis of nitriles |
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Definition
-CN is good nucleophile, hydrolized under acidic/basic conditions to produce carb acid and ammonia (ammonium salts)
allows for conversion of alkyl halides to carb acids
*adds on C to chain |
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Term
reactions of carboxylic acids:
soap formation |
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Definition
Na or K -OH, form salts when react with carb acids
RCOOH + NaOH --> ROOC-Na+ + H2O
nonpolar tail=hydrophobic
polar heads=hydrophilic
(micelles, polar heads out) |
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Term
reactions of carboxylic acids:
nucleophilic substitution |
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Definition
R O- R
| | |
C=O --> R-C-OH --> C=O
| | |
OH Nu Nu |
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Term
reactions of carboxylic acids:
reduction |
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Definition
reduced with LAH-->alcohols
(occurs by nucleophilic addition of hydride to carbonyl group) |
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Term
reactions of carboxylic acids:
ester formation |
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Definition
react with alcohols under acidic conditions to form ester and water
O on C=O becomes protonated (better for nucleophilic attack)
condensation reaction occurs most rapidly with primary alcohols |
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Term
reactions of carboxylic acids:
acyl halide formation |
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Definition
carbonyl group bonded to halides
H+
RCOOH + SOCl2 ----> RCOCl
acid halides, highest energy=least stable and most reactice |
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Term
reactions of carboxylic acids:
decarboxylation |
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Definition
carb acid loss CO2
1,3-dicarboxylic acids and other beta-keto acids, spontaneously decarboxylate when heated
(common in biochemical processes, like Kreb's cycle) |
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Term
| carboxylic acid derivatives |
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Definition
acyl halides, anhydrides, amides, and esters
-OH replaces with -X, -OCOR, -NH2, -OR |
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Term
| order of reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives |
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Definition
| acyl halides>anhydrides>esters>amides |
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Term
| synthesis of acyl halides |
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Definition
reaction of carboxylic acids with thionyl chloride (SOCl2), producing SO2 and HCl as side products
less common, reaction with PCl3, PCl5, or PBr3 |
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Term
reactions of acyl halides:
hydrolysis |
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Definition
reconversion to carboxylic acid
very rapid with water to form acid and HCl (odorous) |
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Term
reaction of acyl halides:
conversion into esters |
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Definition
reaction with alcohol, nucleophilic attack found in hydrolysis, leads to tetrahedral intermediate
hydroxyl oxygen is nucleophile, chloride displaced and HCl released as side-product |
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Term
reaction of acyl halides:
conversion into amides |
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Definition
| reaction with amines (nucleophilic amines such as ammonia) displace halide by attacking carbonyl group |
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Term
reaction of acyl halides:
friedel-crafts acylation |
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Definition
aromatic rings acylated through electrophilic aromatic substitution
formed by reaction with acid chloride or AlCl3 (or another lewis acid)
product is alkyl aryl ketone |
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Term
reaction of acyl halides:
reduction |
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Definition
reduced to alcohols or intermediate aldehydes
catalytic hydrogenation in presence of quinoline
(H2, Pd/BaSO4, and quinoline) |
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Term
|
Definition
| ionic and polar solutes are soluble in polar solvents; nonpolar solutes are soluble in nonpolar solvents |
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|
Term
| solubility rules of various salts in water |
|
Definition
SOLUBLE:
all salts of alkali metals
all salts of ammonium ion (NH4+)
all chlorides, bromides, and iodies(except Ag+, Pb+2, and Hg2+2)
all salts of the sulfate ion (SO4-2)(except Ca+2, Sr+2, Ba+2, and Pb+2)
INSOLUBLE:
all metal oxides (except alkali metals and CaO, SrO, and BaO)
all hydroxides (except alkali metals and Ca+2, Sr+2, and Ba+2)
all carbonates (CO3-2), phosphates (PO4-3), sulfides (S-2) and sulfites (SO3-2) (except alkali metals and ammonium) |
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Term
| metals form ? ions and nonmetals form ? ions |
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Definition
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Term
| oxyanions of transition metals that have high oxidation numbers then to... |
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Definition
| gain electrons to reduce the oxidation number and make good oxidizing agents |
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Term
| strong vs weak electrolytes |
|
Definition
strong: dissociates completely into its consituent ions (ex HCl, NaCl, KI)
weak: ionizes incompletely, some solute still present in ionic form (ex acetic acid, ammonia, HgCl2) |
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Term
| electrolytes produce larger effects on colligative properties because... |
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Definition
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Term
| percent composition by mass |
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Definition
| mass of solute/mass of solution x 100 |
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Term
|
Definition
| X=# mol of compound/# mol total |
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Term
|
Definition
M=mol solute/L solution
depends on volume of solution, and in dilute solutions volume is approx equal to volume of solvent used |
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Term
|
Definition
m=mol solute/kg solvent
dilute aqueous solutions at 25 degrees C, molality=molarity |
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Term
|
Definition
N=# gram equivalent weights of solute/L solution
"molarity of stuff of interest" in reaction |
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Term
| equation used to determine concentration of a solution after dilution: |
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Definition
MiVi=MfVf
(can be used for any unit of concentration, not just M) |
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Term
| dissociation of an ionic solid in a polar solvent: |
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Definition
| AmBn <---> mA^n+ (aq) + nB^m- (aq) |
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Term
ion product (I.P. or Qsp when not at equilibrium)
or
solubility product constant (Ksp) |
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Definition
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|
Term
Qsp vs. Ksp:
supersaturated?
undersaturated?
saturated? |
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Definition
super:
Qsp>Ksp, precipitaion
under:
Qsp
sat:
Qsp=Ksp, equilibrium |
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Term
| every slightly soluble salt with general formula MX3 will have Ksp=? |
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Definition
| 27x^4, where x=molar solubility |
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Term
| every slightly soluble salt with general formula MX2 will have Ksp=? |
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Definition
| 4x^3, where x=molar solubility |
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Term
| solubility of a substance varies depending on... |
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Definition
temp of the solution, solvent, and pressure (in gas-phase solute)
also by addition of other substances |
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Term
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Definition
| solubility of a salt is reduced when it is dissolved in a solution that already contains one of its ions rather that in a pure solvent because equilibrium will shift toward production of the solid salt (Le Chatelier's Principle) |
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Term
| every slightly soluble salt of general forumla MX will have Ksp=? |
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Definition
| x^2 where x=molar solubility |
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Term
| arrhenius acids and bases |
|
Definition
acid:species that produces H+ (proton) in aqueous solution
base:species that produces OH- (hydroxide ion) in aqueous solution |
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Term
| bronsted-lowry acids and bases |
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Definition
acid:donates protons
base:accepts protons
occur in conjugate acid-base pairs, related by transfer of a proton |
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Term
|
Definition
acid:electron-pair acceptor
base:electron-pair donor |
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|
Term
[H+] hydrogen ion concentration, measured as pH=?
[OH-] hydroxide ion concentration, measured as pOH=? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Kw, water dissociation constant |
|
Definition
Kw=[H+][OH-]=10^-14
pH+pOH=14 |
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|
Term
| product of logs is equal to ? |
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Definition
sum of logs
log(xy)=log x + log y |
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|
Term
Logx^n=?
Log10^x=?
-Log10^-x=? |
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Definition
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|
Term
if [H+]=0.001 or 10^-3, then pH=?
if Kb=1.0x10^-7, then pKb=? |
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Definition
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|
Term
if nx10^-m:
then m-log n, where log n=? |
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Definition
| log n=some fraction between 0 and 1; larger n is, the closer it will be to 1 |
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|
Term
| pH scale is only valid at ? |
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Definition
| 25 degrees C, Kw will change if temp changes, which changes pH scale |
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Term
| strong acids and strong bases |
|
Definition
acids: HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4, and HCl
bases: NaOH, KOH, soluble hydroxides of group IA and IIA metals. |
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Term
| Ka, acid dissociation constant |
|
Definition
Ka=[H3O+][A-]
----------
[HA]
the weaker the acid, the smaller the Ka |
|
|
Term
| Kb, base dissociation constant |
|
Definition
Kb=[B+][OH-]
----------
[BOH]
weaker the base, smaller the Kb |
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|
Term
| acid and base equivalents |
|
Definition
acid equivalent=1 mol H+ ions
base equivalent=1 mol OH- ions |
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|
Term
|
Definition
can can as an acid or base (can gain or lose a proton)
ex Water |
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|
Term
| equation used to calculate the volume added to reach the end point in titration: |
|
Definition
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|
Term
titration of strong acid with strong base
vs.
titration of weak acid with strong base |
|
Definition
curve starts at low pH then jumps high and steep
curve slowly starts to rise in pH, then steep for a very small time when equivalence pt is reached, then levels off |
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|
Term
|
Definition
weak acid and its salt or weak base and its salt
ex acetic acid (CH3COOH) and sodium acetate (CH3COO-Na+) |
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Term
| Henderson-Hasselbalch equation |
|
Definition
pH=pKa + log [conj base]/[weak acid]
pOH=pKb + log [conj acid]/[weak base]
when [conj]=[weak], pH(pOH)=pKa(pKb), because log 1=0 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| particle or mass oscillates about an equilibrium point subject to a linear restoring force |
|
|
Term
| two examples of simple harmonic motion |
|
Definition
| mass attached to a spring and a simple pendulum |
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Term
|
Definition
| maximum displacement from equilibrium position |
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|
Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| potential energy of a pendulum |
|
Definition
| mgh, where h is height above the lowest point |
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|
Term
| at equilibrium point, potential energy=? and kinetic energy=? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| at points of maximum displacement, PE=? and KE=? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| at points of maximum displacement, PE=? and KE=? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| frequency and period are ? |
|
Definition
reciprocals of one another
f=1/T and T=1/f |
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Term
| constructive vs destructive interference |
|
Definition
con: waves are in phase, amplitudes add together
de:waves are out of phase, amplitude is difference between interacting amplitudes |
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|
Term
| why do standing waves occur? |
|
Definition
| because of interference of two or more waves |
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|
Term
| a system is resonating if... |
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Definition
| the frequency of the periodically varying force is equal to a natural frequency of the system |
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|
Term
| sound can travel through ? but not through ? |
|
Definition
solids, liquids, and gases
a vacuum |
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Term
|
Definition
power/area
energy/time/area
P=IA |
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|
Term
|
Definition
when a source emits sound and the detector of the sound are moving relative to one another along the line joining them, perceived frequency differs from actual frequency emitted
moving towards each other, frequency increases
moving away from each other, frequency decreases
moving with same speed in same direction, no frequency shift |
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Term
higher harmonics have ? wavelengths and ? frequencies, but the same ? as lower harmonics
(for strings and pipes) |
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Definition
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Term
| open pipes vs. closed pipes |
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Definition
anitnodes at both ends(half the wavelength)
node at closed end and antinode at open end(quarter the wavelength) |
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Term
| descending order of wavelength in electromagnetic spectrum |
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Definition
| radio>infrared>visible light>ultraviolet>X-ray>gamma ray |
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Term
| reflection occurs even when ? |
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Definition
| light passes through a transparent medium, most passes through but some is reflected |
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Term
| plane mirrors vs. spherical mirrors |
|
Definition
always create virtual images
concave (converging and positive focal length) or convex (diverging and negative focal length), |
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Term
| real images have ? image distance and virtual images have ? image distance |
|
Definition
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|
Term
magnification
upright images have ? magnification and inverted images have ? magnification |
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Definition
ratio of image's height to object's height
positive
negative |
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|
Term
signs for single mirrors:
o?
i?
r?
f?
m?
(positive or negative) |
|
Definition
o:
+ in front of mirror
- behind mirror
i:
+ in front of mirror (R side)
- behind mirror (V side)
r:
+ concave mirrors
- convex mirrors
f:
+ concave mirrors
- convex mirrors
m:
+ image is upright
- image is inverted |
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Term
| light travels more slowly through ? than ? |
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Definition
| material media than a vacuum, wavelength changes accordingly while frequency remains constant |
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Term
|
Definition
n=c/v (c=speed of light, v=speed of light in medium)
n=index of refraction |
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|
Term
when light enters a medium with a higher index of refraction, it bends...
""smaller index of refraction, it bends... |
|
Definition
towards the normal so that the angle is smaller
away from the normal so that the angle is bigger |
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|
Term
| total internal reflection can only occur when... |
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Definition
going from a medium of greater index of refraction to a medium of lesser index of refraction
refracted angle is larger than angle of incidence, angle of incidence increases until critical angle is reached, all of the light incident if reflected back into the original material |
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Term
| converging lenses cause parallel rays to ? at the focal point and rays from the focal point to ? parallel |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| for lenses, positive images are on the ? side to the object |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
| light really goes after interacting with the mirror or lens |
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|
Term
signs for single lenses:
o?
i?
f?
m?
r?
(positive or negative) |
|
Definition
o:
+ object on side of lens light comes from
- object on side of lens light goes to
i:
+ image on side of lens light goes to (R side)
- image on side of lens light comes from (V side)
f:
+ converging lens
- diverging lens
m:
+ image erect
- image inverted
r:
+ when on R side
- when on V side |
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Term
| for multiple lenses, image from one lens becomes ? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
when speed of wave varies with wavelength
ex splitting of white light into colors using a prism |
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Term
|
Definition
| spreading out of light as it passes through a narrow opening |
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Term
| plane-polarized light vs. unpolarized light |
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Definition
electric field vector is always in the same direction (parallel)
electric field vector points randomly changing directions |
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|
Term
anterior pituitary, 6 hormones:
FLAT PiG |
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Definition
| FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, (ignore), GH |
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|
Term
| posterior pituitary stores two hormones: |
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Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
| thyroid englarges in hypothyroidism and hyper thyroidism, when thyroid hormones are under or over secreted |
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Term
| PTH vs. Calcitonin (calci-bone-in) |
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Definition
PTH increases plasma Ca+2 levels by stimulating release from bone and decreasing excretion in the kidneys
Calcitonin decreases plasma Ca+2 levels by inhibiting release from bone |
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Term
| corticosteroids are derived from... |
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Definition
| cholesterol, another good function |
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Term
| types of corticosteroids from adrenal cortex: |
|
Definition
| glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, cortical sex hormones |
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Term
| endocrine function of pancreas perfomed by... |
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Definition
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|
Term
pancreas:
alpha cells produce ? and beta cells produce ? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| insulin (in-cell-in) vs. glucagon |
|
Definition
insulin: decreases plasma glucose
glucagon: increases plasma glucose |
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Term
| hormones capable of increasing plasma glucose |
|
Definition
| glucagon, GH, glucocorticoids, and epinephrine |
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Term
| regulation of insulin secretion flow chart |
|
Definition
| rise in blood glucose-->high blood glucose--> stimulates insulin secretion--> lower blood glucose -->inhibits insulin--> starts all over |
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Term
|
Definition
always inhibitory, regardless of where it acts
(decreases insulin and glucagon secretion) |
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Term
| follicles mature during which phase of the menstrual cycle? |
|
Definition
| follicular phase (FSH and LH), which begins with cessation of menstrual flow from previos cycle |
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Term
| ovulation is trigger by what? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| what happens to a ruptured follicle (ovulation)? |
|
Definition
| it becomes the corpus luteum and secretes estrogen and progesterone to build up uterine lining, FSH and LH are inhibited |
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Term
| if fertilization does not occur, what happens? |
|
Definition
| corpus luteum atrophies, progesterone and estrogen levels decrease and menstration occurs, LH and FSH levels again begin to rise |
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Term
| three classes of hormones: |
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Definition
| peptide (surface receptors,generally act as first messenger), steroid (intracellular receptors,hormone/receptor binding to DNA promotes transcription of certain genes), and amino acid-derived(some act as peptides, and others as steroids) |
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Term
|
Definition
dendrites towards cell body
axons away from cell body |
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Term
| excited or depolarized neuron |
|
Definition
inside of the cell becomes less negative, Na+ wants to go inside because of this (electrical gradient) and because there is less Na+ inside (chemical gradient)
action potential is generated |
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Term
| when minimum threshold potential (-50 mV) is reached, action potential is generated then... |
|
Definition
voltage-gated ion channels at nerve cell membrane open in response to change in voltage
AP begins when voltage-gated Na+ channels open in response to depolarization, allowing Na+ to rush in down its electrochemical gradient segment of cell becomes rapidly depolarized and channels close, voltage-gated K+ channels open, allowing K+ to rush out down its electrochemical gradient
returns cell to more negative potential (repolarization) or may become hyperpolarized
refractory period follows AP, when it is nearly impossible to generate another AP |
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Term
| all-or-none response (think of hitting thumb with hammer) |
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Definition
AP have consistent size and duration, neuronal info coded by number of APs, not size of one.
harder you hit thumb with hammer, the more APs travel up pain fibers,size and duration of each AP stays the same |
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Term
| afferent neurons vs. efferent neurons |
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Definition
afferent are sensory (from environment to brain)
efferent are motor (from brain to parts of body) |
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|
Term
| two major systems of the nervous system |
|
Definition
| central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS) |
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|
Term
| central nervous system (CNS) |
|
Definition
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|
Term
Brain
(functions, matter, and divisions) |
|
Definition
functions: interpreting sensory info, forming motor plans, and cognitive function (thinking)
matter:gray(cell bodies) and white(myelinated axons)
divisions: forebrain(telencephalon and diencephalon), midbrain, and hindbrain (cerebellum, pons, and medulla) |
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Term
|
Definition
telencephalon: right and left hemispheres, each hemi can be divided into 4 lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal)
also, cerebral cortex (which is also divided in right and left halves that communicate through the corpus callosum)
diencephalon:thalamus(relay and integration for spinal cord and cerebral cortex) and hypothalamus(visceral functions and endocrine system functions) |
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Term
| together, midbrain, pons, and medulla make up what part of the brain? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| how does sensory information enter the spinal cord? motor? |
|
Definition
sensory: dorsally, cell bodies of sensory neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia
motor: exits ventrally,no ganglia |
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Term
| four regions of the spinal cord |
|
Definition
| cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral |
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Term
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
|
Definition
divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system (ANS further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)
consists of 12 cranial nerves, innervating the head and shoulders, and 31 spinal nerves, innervate the rest of the body |
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Term
| somatic nervous system (SNS) |
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Definition
| innervates skeletal muscles, responsible for voluntary movements and reflex action(monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflexes) |
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|
Term
| autonomic nervous system (ANS) |
|
Definition
regulates body's internal environment without aid of concious control
innervates smooth and cardiac muscle |
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Term
| sympathetic vs. parasympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
symp: "fight or flight", inc BP and heart rate, inc blood flow to skeletal muscles, and dec gut motility, pupil dilation
para:"rest and digest", conserve energy and restore body, lower heart rate and inc gut motility |
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Term
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Definition
1st: preganglionic neuron, cell body in CNS, axon synapses in peripheral ganglia
2nd: postganglionic neuron, cell body in ganglia, synapses at smooth or cardiac muscle |
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Term
| three types of sensory receptors in body that help monitor internal and external environment |
|
Definition
| interoceptors (monitor internal environment), proprioceptors (info regarding position of body in space), and exteroceptors (senses light, sound, touch, taste, pain, and temp of external environment) |
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Term
|
Definition
means "without water", formed by two acid molecules condensing (losing water)
general formula RCOOCOR
most impt is acetic anhydride:
CH3COOCOCH3 |
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Term
|
Definition
reaction of acid chloride with carboxylate salt
some cyclic anhydrides formed by heating carboxylic acid, reaction driven by increased stability (only 5 anf 6 memebered rings made easily) |
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Term
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Definition
| functional group of a molecule |
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|
Term
reactions of anhydrides:
hydrolysis |
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Definition
| converted into carboxylic acids when exposed to water |
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|
Term
reactions of anhydrides:
conversion into amides |
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Definition
cleaved by ammonia producing amides and ammonium carboxylates
leaving group is a carboxylic acid, but products are an amide and an ammonium salt of a carboxylate anion |
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|
Term
reactions of anhydrides:
conversion into esters and carboxylic acids |
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Definition
| react with alcohols to form both products in one reaction |
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|
Term
reactions of anhydrides:
acylation |
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Definition
occurs readily with AlCl3, or other lewis acid catalysts
reaction proceeds via electrophilic aromatic substitution |
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|
Term
|
Definition
general formula RCONR2
substituents on N are listed as prefixes, location is specified with letter N |
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|
Term
|
Definition
reaction with acid chlorides and amines
or by reaction of acid anhydrides with ammonia (loss of H is required, so only primary and secondary amines undergo this reaction) |
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|
Term
reactions with amides:
hydrolysis |
|
Definition
hydrolyze under acidic conditions via nucleophilic substitution to produce carboxylic acids
under basic conditions to produce carboxylates |
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|
Term
reactions with amides:
Hoffmann rearrangement |
|
Definition
converts amides into primary amines, with loss of carbonyl carbon
mechanism involves formation of nitrene (nitrogen anolog of carbene) |
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|
Term
reactions with amides:
reduction |
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Definition
| reduced with LAH to produce amine (no carbon is lost, like in Hoffmann) |
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|
Term
|
Definition
dehydration products of carboxylic acids and alcohols
ethyl ethanoate is derived from acetic acid and ethanol |
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|
Term
|
Definition
mix of carboxyic acids and alcohols, produce esters through condesation (loss of water) under acidic conditions
can also be formed from reaction of acid chlorides or anhydrides with alcohols |
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|
Term
reactions with esters:
hydrolysis |
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Definition
| hydrolyzed under either acidic or basic conditions, yeilds carboxylic acids and alcohols |
|
|
Term
reactions with esters:
caonversion into amides |
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Definition
| nitrogen bases attack electron-deficient carbonyl carbon atom, yeild an amide and an alcohol-side product |
|
|
Term
reactions with esters:
transesterification |
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Definition
| alcohols act as nucelophiles and displace alkoxy groups on esters, transforms one ester into another |
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|
Term
reactions with esters:
grignard addition |
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Definition
| grignard reagents (RMgX) add R- to carbonyl group of ester to form ketones, but are very reactive and when two equivalents of grignard reagent are used, product is tertiary alcohol |
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|
Term
reactions with esters:
condensation reactions (Claisen condesation) |
|
Definition
two moles of ethyl acetate react under basic conditions to produce beta-keto ester, ethyl 3-oxybutanoate (or acetoacetic ester)
enolate ion of one ester acts as a nucleophole, attacking the carbonyl group of the other ester(mechanism is same as aldol condensation) |
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|
Term
reactions with esters:
reduction |
|
Definition
| reduced to primary alcohols with LAH but not with NaBH4 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
phosphoric acid derivatives, not carboxylic acid derivatives but form esters
can be cleaved into parent acid and alcohols under acidic conditions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
general formula NR3
classified according to number of alkyl groups attached (primary, secondary, or tertiary--quarternary ammonium compounds have four alkyl groups attached and carry a + charge) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
general formula RNHC(O)OR'
also called urethanes, can form polyurethanes
derived from isocyanates (general forumla RNCO) by addition of alcohol |
|
|
Term
Nitrogen containing compounds:
amide
carbamate
imine
enamine
azide
nitrile
isocyanate |
|
Definition
amide-RCONH2
carbamate-RNHC(O)OR'
imine-R2CNR''
enamine-(CH3)2CC(CH3)NRR'
azide-RN-N+(trip bond)N
nitrile-RC(trip bond)N
isocyanate-RN=C=O |
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|
Term
|
Definition
between those of alkanes and alcohols (except ammonia, BP at -33 degrees C)
as molecular weight increases, so do BPs
primary and secondary can form H-bonds, tertiary cannot(they have lower BP as well) |
|
|
Term
synthesis of amines:
alkylation of ammonia (direct) |
|
Definition
alkyl halides react with ammonia to produce alkylamine products
reaction often leads to side products because alkylamine formed is nucleophilic |
|
|
Term
synthesis of amines:
alkylation of ammonia (gabriel synthesis) |
|
Definition
| converts primary alkyl halides to a primary amine with ammonia |
|
|
Term
synthesis of amines:
reduction (from nitro compounds) |
|
Definition
easily reduced to primary amines, most common reducing agent is iron or zinc and dilute HCl (other reagents may be used)
especially useful for aromatic compounds (nitration of aromatic rings takes little effort) |
|
|
Term
synthesis of amines:
reduction (from nitro compounds) |
|
Definition
easily reduced to primary amines, most common reducing agent is iron or zinc and dilute HCl (other reagents may be used)
especially useful for aromatic compounds (nitration of aromatic rings takes little effort) |
|
|
Term
synthesis of amines:
reduction (from nitriles) |
|
Definition
| reduced with hydrogen and a catalyst or with LAH to produce primary amines |
|
|
Term
synthesis of amines:
reduction (from imines) |
|
Definition
reductive amination (aldehyde or ketone is reacted with ammonia, a primary amine, or a secondary amine) to produce primary, secondary, or tertiary amine, respectively
first reaction, imine is produced, the undergoes hyrdride reduction with hydrogen in presence of catalyst and amine is produced |
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|
Term
| imine is nitrogen double bonded to carbon, has same polarity as... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
synthesis of amines:
reduction (from amides) |
|
Definition
| reduced with LAH to form amines |
|
|
Term
reactions with amines:
exhaustive methylation (Hoffmann elimination) |
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Definition
| amine converted to quarternary ammonium iodide by treatment with methyl iodide, then treated with silver oxide and water converts to ammonium hydroxide, then heated and undergoes elimination to form an alkene and amine (least substituted alkene formed predominantly) |
|
|
Term
extraction in a separatory funnel:
aqueous vs organic layer |
|
Definition
| like oil and water in dressing, mixture with ultimately seperate after being shaken |
|
|
Term
extraction:
three intermolecular forces that affect solubility |
|
Definition
H-bonding, these compounds will move more easily into aqueous layer
dipole-dipole interactions, compounds are less likely to move into aqueous layer
van der Waals forces, compounds are least likely to mvoe into aqueous layer |
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|
Term
| in recrystallization, the desired product should have solubility that depends on...and impurities should... |
|
Definition
temp, should be more soluble at high temps and less at low
impurities should be equally soluble at various temp |
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|
Term
| SeDimentation depends on... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| key concept in chromotography is to seperate compounds based on... |
|
Definition
how strongly they adhere to the soild or stationary phase (how easily they come off the mobile phase)
has to do with polarity |
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|
Term
chromotography:
substances can be identified base on... |
|
Definition
how far it travels in a given amount of time (TLC)
how rapidly it travels a given distance (GC or column chromotography) |
|
|
Term
| in electrophoresis, anions attract to the ? and cation attract to the ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in most forms of electrophoresis, ? is the most important factor |
|
Definition
| size of the macromolecules, small move faster, while large more more slowly |
|
|
Term
| SDS-PAGE and agarose gel electrophoresis seperate molecules based on... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in isoelectric focusing, a protein stops moving when... |
|
Definition
| pH=pI (isoelectric point, or pH at which a proteins net charge is zero) |
|
|
Term
electrochemical reactions:
spontaneous vs. nonspontaneous |
|
Definition
spon: produce electrical energy
non:use electrical energy to produce a chemical change
both involve transfer of electrons with conservation of charge and mass |
|
|
Term
| law of conservation of charge |
|
Definition
| an electrical charge can be neither created or destroyed, oxidation and reduction must occur at the same time (redox reaction) |
|
|
Term
| OIL RIG (redox reactions) |
|
Definition
| oxidation is loss reduction is gain |
|
|
Term
| rules of assigning oxidation number: |
|
Definition
oxidation number of free elements is zero
monatomic ion=charge of the ion
each group IA element +1. each group IIA element +2.each group VIIA -1, except when combined with element of higher electronegativity
hydrogen is -1 in cpmds with fewer electronegative elements than H (group IA and IIA) in most cpmds, oxygen is -2
sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms present in a neutral cmpd is zero, in polyatomic ions it is equal to charge of the ion |
|
|
Term
| NaH and HCl, which atom in each is cation and which is anion? |
|
Definition
Na+:-cation H-:anion
H+:cation Cl-:anion |
|
|
Term
balancing redox equations:
half-reaction method, or ion-electron method |
|
Definition
| balance one atom at a time |
|
|
Term
electrodes:
AN OX(oxidAtion) and RED CAT (reduCtion) |
|
Definition
oxidation occurs at the anode
reduction occurs at the cathode |
|
|
Term
| galvanic cells (voltaic cells) |
|
Definition
negative change in free energy, spontaneous reaction
supply energy, commonly used at batteries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| permits exchange of cations and anions to balance newly generated charges |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
anode|anode solution||cathode solution|cathode
reactants and products listed from left to right
single line-phase boundary
double line-salt bridge or some other barrier |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
96,487 C/mol e-
equivalent to amount of charge contained in one mole of electrons (1 F=96,487 C or J/V) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
positive change in free energy, nonspontaneous
electrolysis, energy is required to induce reaction |
|
|
Term
| anode of electrolytic cell vs. galvanic cell |
|
Definition
positive because it is attached to positive pole of battery, attracts anions from solution
negative because spontaneous oxidation reaction takes place at anode and is original source of cell's negative charge (source of electrons)
oxidation takes place at both, electrons flow through wire from anode to cathode |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
determines the species in a reaction that will be oxidized or reduced , tendency of a species to aquire electrons and be reduced
the more positive the potential, the greater the tendency to be reduced and lower means greater tendency for oxidation to occur |
|
|
Term
| EMF (electromotive force) |
|
Definition
determined by adding the standard reduction potential of the reduced speies and the standard oxidation potential of the oxidized species
positive in galvanic and negative in electrolytic |
|
|
Term
| relation between ΔG and EMF |
|
Definition
ΔG=-nFEcell
where n=number of moles of electrons exchanges
F=faraday's constant
Ecell=EMF of cell
if F is in J/V, then ΔG must be expressed in J, not kJ |
|
|
Term
| EMF varied with changing... |
|
Definition
| concentration of the species involved |
|
|
Term
| if Ecell is positive, then ln K must also be positive, which means what? |
|
Definition
| that K is greater that 1 and equilibrium must lie toward the right (products are favored) |
|
|
Term
| three primary germ layers and their derivatives |
|
Definition
ectoderm-nervous system and epidermis
mesoderm-circulatory and excretory systems
endoderm-linings of digestive and respiratory tracts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| composed of dna, located on chromosomes |
|
|
Term
| Mendel's law of segregation |
|
Definition
genes exist in alternate forms called alleles
an organism has two alleles for each inherited trait, one from each parent
two alleles segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes that only carry one allele for any given trait
if two alleles are different, only one will be fully expressed (the other silent) expressed is dominant, silent is recessive |
|
|
Term
genetics:
homozygous vs. heterozygous |
|
Definition
homo: two copies of the same allele
hetero: two different alleles |
|
|
Term
| Mendel's law of independent assortment |
|
Definition
alleles of unlinked genes assort independently during meiosis
each trait assorts individually in a 3:1 ratio |
|
|
Term
| penetrance vs. expressivity |
|
Definition
penetrance of a genotype if the percentage of individuals in a population carrying the allele who actually express the phenotype
expressivity of a genotype is degree to which phenotype is associated with a genotype is expressed in individuals who carry the allele |
|
|
Term
| gender of a zygote is determined by... |
|
Definition
| the genetic contribution of the male gamete (Y=male, X=female) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
generally affect only males
cannot be passed from father to son, but can be passed from father to grandson viz carrier daugther, skipping a generation |
|
|
Term
| when analyzing a pedigree, look for... |
|
Definition
| the recessive phenotype, if only males are affected, suspect sex linkage |
|
|
Term
pedigrees:
male vs female?
matings vs descendents?
affected vs unaffected?
half shaded? |
|
Definition
male=square
female=circle
matings=horizontal lines
descendents=vertical lines
affected=red
unaffected=blue
half shaded=carriers of sex linked traits (usually female heterozygotes) |
|
|
Term
chromosomal abberations:
nondisjunction |
|
Definition
homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids failed to seperate correctly
one gamete with 2 copies of chromosomes, 2 normal gametes, and 1 gamete with no copies of chromosomes
can cause down syndrome, trisomy of chromosome 21
also can happen in sex chromosomes, extra or missing X or Y chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process of measuring the energy difference between the possible states of a molecular system by determining the frequencies of electromagnetic radiation (light) absorbed by the molecules |
|
|
Term
| infrared (IR) spectroscopy |
|
Definition
measures molecular vibrations
-bond stretching, bending, rotation
useful absorptions: 3,000-30,000nm (3,500-300 cm^-1)
bond stretching energy: 1,500-4,000 cm^-1
bending vibration energy: 400-1,500 cm^-1
complex frequency patterns: 1,500-400 cm^-1 |
|
|
Term
IR spectroscopy:
for an absorption to be recorded, motion must result in a... |
|
Definition
| change in bond dipole moment (therefore symmetric stretches do not show up in IR spectra since they involve no net change in dipole movement) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
IR absorption peaks:
alkanes
alkenes
alkynes
aromatic
ethers
aldehydes
alcohols*
ketones*
acids*
amines* |
|
Definition
alkane: 2,800-3,000
alkene:3,080-3,140
alkyne:2,200(C-C) 3,300 (-C-H)
aromatic:2,900-3,100 (C-H) 1,475-1,625 (C-C)
ethers: 1,050-1,150
aldehydes:2,700-2,900 (OCH) 1,725-1,750 (CO)
***
alcohols(BROAD PEAK):3,100-3,500
ketones:1,700-1,750
acids(BROADEST PEAK):2,900-3,300
amines(SHARP PEAK):3,100-3,500 |
|
|
Term
| nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy |
|
Definition
certain nuclei have magnetic moments, when put in magnetic field moments tend to align with or against direction of applied field
alpha-state:lower energy, aligned with the field
beta-state:higher energy, aligned against the field
used to study H1, C13, and any atom with an odd atomic number or mass number--such as F19, O17, N14, N15, P31) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
each peak represents a single proton or group of equivalent protons (number of peaks is the number of groups of nonequivalent protons)
relative area of each peak reflects the ration of the protons producing each peak
position of the peak (upfield or downfield) due to shielding or deshielding effects reflects the chemical environment of the protons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
determining the relative number of protons and their relative chemical environments
showing how many adjacent protons there are by splitting patterns
showing certain functional groups |
|
|
Term
| ultraviolet (UV)spectroscopy |
|
Definition
| wavelength of maximum absorbanve provides info on the extent of conjugated system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| most useful for studying compounds containing double bonds and/or hetero atoms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
destructive technique
lines correspond to specific mass/charge ratio (m/e) |
|
|
Term
| mass spectrometry characteristics |
|
Definition
tallest peak=most common ion, base peak with relative abundance value of 100%
molecular ion peak=peak with highest m/e ratio, parent ion peak M+ (molecular weight can be obtained), charge value=1 |
|
|
Term
| initial ion formed in mass spectrometry is cation radical, then... |
|
Definition
| breaks into cations and radicals, and only cations are deflected by magnetic field so only cations show up on the spectrum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
carbohydrates:
D vs L configuration |
|
Definition
D-positive rotation, if -OH is on the right (dextro latin for right)
L-negative rotation, if Lowest -OH is on the left |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| differ in configuration at only one carbon |
|
|
Term
| any group on the right of a Fischer projection will be pointing ? and any group on the left will be pointing ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
differ in configuration at the newly formed chiral center
(alpha-down (trans), beta-up(cis))
alpha less favored because of sterics |
|
|
Term
| all matter has temp above absolute zero, so all matter... |
|
Definition
| emits electromagnetic radiation |
|
|
Term
| amount of radiant energy emitted at a given wavelentgth depends on |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
h=6.63x10^-34 J*s
=4.14x10^-15 eV*s |
|
|
Term
| a blackbody curve or spectrum shows |
|
Definition
| the amount of energy radiated as a function of wavelength |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Energy of a quantum of light (photon) or frequency=? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when light of a sufficiently high frequency is incident on a metal in a vacuum, the metal emits electrons |
|
|
Term
wavelength and frequency of light in a vacuum are related to speed of light by ?
wavelength, frequency, and velocity are related by ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
shorter wavelength= ? frequency and ? energy photons
longer wavelength= ? frequency and ? energy photons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a photon can liberate an electron from a metal surface only if... |
|
Definition
| the energy of the photon, E=hf, is greater than or equal to the work fuction of the metal W=hf(T) |
|
|
Term
| lowest energy (ground state) of an electron in hydrogen is... |
|
Definition
| negative, higher energy bound states are also negative, but smaller in magnitude |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| electron ends up with an energy of at least 0 eV and is unbound (free) |
|
|
Term
| energy closest to nucleus (ground state) for H=? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| positive energy states have no... |
|
Definition
| principal quantum number, electron is not bound to proton (free state) and can have any positive energy |
|
|
Term
| Bohr's postulates for emission and absorption of light: |
|
Definition
energy levels of an electron are stable and discrete
electron emits of absorbs radiation only when making a transition from one energy level to another
to jump from lower to higher energy level, electron must absorb a photon of the right frequency so that it is the energy difference between the two orbits
to jump from higher to lower energy electron must emit a photon of frequency such that it is the exact energy difference between the two orbits |
|
|
Term
absorption yeilds ?
emission yeilds ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
if change in electron's energy is negative,
positive? |
|
Definition
electron has jumped from higher less negative to lower more negative energy levels
absorbed energy, lower to higher |
|
|
Term
| use E=hf to find frequency of photon is given... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
nuclear properties:
atomic number (Z) |
|
Definition
number of protons in nucleus
defines elements because each has a unique number of protons |
|
|
Term
nuclear properties:
mass number (A) |
|
Definition
| total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus |
|
|
Term
nuclear properties:
isotopes |
|
Definition
| different number of neutrons, so different mass number |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
H(1,1)-hydrogen
H(2,1)-deuteron
H(3,1)-triton |
|
|
Term
nuclear properties:
atomic mass and amu |
|
Definition
atomic mass measured in ame
1 amu=1/12 mass of C-12 atom
1 amu= 1.66x10^-27 kg= 1.66x10^-24 g |
|
|
Term
nuclear properties:
atomic weight |
|
Definition
| weighted avg of masses of an element (isotopes) |
|
|
Term
| mass of a nucleus is always less than... |
|
Definition
| the combined masses of its protons and neutrons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| difference in mass of nucleus and mass of protons and neutrons combined |
|
|
Term
mass defect is a result of...
Einstein's equation? |
|
Definition
matter converted to energy
E=mc^2 |
|
|
Term
| energy of the mass defect: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| holds nucleons together in nucleus |
|
|
Term
| nuclear reactions involve... |
|
Definition
| combining or splitting of nuclei of atoms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
fu: combine smaller nuclei into larger nucleus
fi: split larger nucleus into smaller nuclei
both release energy since mass(i)>mass(f) |
|
|
Term
| what happens to total mass number (A) in nuclear reactions? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
naturally occuring spontaneous decay of certain nuclei, with emission of specific particles
classified as a certain type of fission |
|
|
Term
| three types of radioactive decay |
|
Definition
integer arithemetic of particles and isotope species
radioactive half-life
use of exponential decay curves and decay constants |
|
|
Term
radioactive decay:
isotope decay arithmetic and nucleon conservation |
|
Definition
alpha decay:emission of an α-particle (He-4, 2 protons and 2 neutrons)daughter's atomic number is 2 less than parent's, daughter's mass number is 4 less than parent's
beta decay: emission of a β- particle (an electron)or emission of a β+ particle (a positron, a positive electron)
β-:neutron disappears and proton takes its place(mass number is unchanged, atomic number increases by 1)
β+: proton spilts into a positron and neutron (mass number is unchanged, atomic number decreases by 1)
gamma decay:emission of g-particles (high energy photons, release energy but do not change A or Z) |
|
|
Term
radioactive decay:
radioactive decay half-life (T1/2) |
|
Definition
time it takes for half of the sample to decay
fraction of original nuclei remaining after n half-lives= (1/2)^n |
|
|
Term
radioactive decay:
exponential decay |
|
Definition
if n is the number of radioactive nuclei that have not yet decayed in a sample: the rate at which the nuclei decay (Δn/Δt) is proportional to the number that remain (n)
Δn/Δt=-λn
where λ is the decay constant (related to half-life by 0.693/T1/2)
use this to find exponetial decay (or the number of radioactive nuclei changes with time): n=noe^(-λt) |
|
|
Term
| central dogma of molecular genetics |
|
Definition
DNA->self-replication
| transcription
√
RNA
| translation
√
proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
basic unit: nucleotide (deoxyribose bonded to phosphate group and a nitrogenous base)
nitrogenous base can be one of two:
double-ringed purines(adenine and guanine)
single-ringed pyrimidines(cytosine and thymine)
3' hydroxyl group of the sugar is joined to the 5' hydroxyl group of the adjacent sugar by a phosphodiester bond
there will be equal amounts of T and A, and also equal amount of G and C (which form trip bonds and cause more tightly bound strands of DNA when in high content) |
|
|
Term
| Watson-Crick double-stranded helix |
|
Definition
sugar-phosphate chains on outside, bases on inside
T forms 2 H-bonds with A
G forms 3 H-bonds with C
base pairing, forms "rungs" that link two polynucleotides together
strands are positioned antiparallel, one has 5'-->3' polarity, the other has 3'-->5' |
|
|
Term
DNA replication:
semiconservative replication |
|
Definition
helix unwinds, each strand acts as a template
new daughter helix contains intact strand from parent helix and a newly synthesized strand |
|
|
Term
DNA replication:
origin of replication |
|
Definition
as helix unwinds, strands are copied with aid of more than a dozen enzymes, rate of about 50 nucleotides/sec
begins at specific sites, proceeds in both directions at the same time, replication fork forms |
|
|
Term
DNA replication:
unwinding and initiation |
|
Definition
helicase unwinds helix
single-strand binding protein (SSB) binds to single strands to stabilize them
DNA gyrase, topoisomerase that enhances action of helicase by intro of negative supercoils into DNA molecule
primer chain, several nucleotides composed of RNA, needed for initiation of DNA synthesis
primase, RNA polymerase, synthesizes primer which binds to segment of DNA and is site of nucleotide addition (first nucleotide binds to 3' end of primer chain) |
|
|
Term
DNA replication:
synthesis |
|
Definition
proceeds in 5'-->3' direction
catalyzed by DNA polymerases
leading strand continuously synthesized by DNA polymerase in 5'-->3' direction
lagging strand synthesized discontinuously in 5'-->3' direction as series of short segments (Okazaki fragments), linked by enzyme DNA ligase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
structured like DNA, but sugar is ribose and contains uracil (U) instead of thymine
single stranded, found in both nucleus and cytoplasm |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
carries complement of DNA sequence and transports it from nucleus to ribosomes (where protein synthesis occurs)
monocistronic (one strand codes for one polypeptide) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
found in cytoplasm, aids in translation of mRNA's nucleotide code into a sequence of amino acids
brinds amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis
at least one type of tRNA for each amino acid (40 types known) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| structural component of ribosomes, most abundant type of RNA, synthesized in nucleolus |
|
|
Term
| heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) |
|
Definition
| large ribonucleoprotein complex that is precursor of mRNA |
|
|
Term
protein synthesis:
transcription |
|
Definition
process where info coded in base sequence of DNA is transcribed into a strand of mRNA
DNA helix unwinds at point of transcription, synthesis in 5'->3' direction, but using only one DNA strand as template
mRNA synthesized by RNA polymerase (must bind to sites on DNA called promoters)
synthesis continues until polymerase reaches termination sequence |
|
|
Term
INtrons are...
EXons are... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
protein synthesis:
post-translational RNA processing |
|
Definition
typical gene consists of coding sequences (exons) interrupted by noncoding sequences (introns)
hnRNA contains both introns and exons, but processing cleaves and removes introns and splices exons to form mRNA molecule coding for single polypeptide
occurs within nucleus, also necessary for tRNA and rRNA production |
|
|
Term
protein synthesis:
genetic code |
|
Definition
proteins consist of 20 amino acids
must be translated by mRNA to produce triplet code
base sequence of mRNA is translated as series of triplets called codons
each codon represents only one amino acid, by most amino acids are represented by more than one codon (degeneracy or redundancy) |
|
|
Term
protein synthesis:
translation |
|
Definition
process where mRNA codons are translated into sequence of amino acids
occurs in cytoplasm, involves tRNA, ribosomes, amino acids, enzymes, and other proteins |
|
|
Term
protein synthesis:
tRNA in translation |
|
Definition
brings amino acids to ribosomes in correct sequence for polypeptide synthesis
recognizes amino acid and mRNA codon
3-D structure: one end contains three nucleotide sequence called anticodon (mRNA codon) and other end contains site for amino acid attatchment, consists of CCA sequence for all tRNA
each amino acid has its own aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, catalyzing attachment to form aminoacyl-tRNA complex |
|
|
Term
protein synthesis:
ribosomes in translation |
|
Definition
composed of two subunits-one large, one small
which bind together during protein synthesis
3 binding sites: one for mRNA, two for tRNA
P sites(peptidyl-tRNA binding)
A sites(aminoacyl-tRNA binding) |
|
|
Term
protein synthesis:
polypeptide synthesis in translation |
|
Definition
three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination
initiation:synthesis begins when small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA near 5' end in presence of proteins called initiation factors
elongation:cycle completed by translocation, ribosome advances 3 nucleotides along mRNA, tRNA from P site expelled and peptidyl-tRNA moves from A site to P site (opens A site for next codon)
termination:terminates when one of three special codons (mRNA termination codons) arrives at A site |
|
|
Term
DNA-->DNA?
DNA-->RNA?
RNA-->Protein? |
|
Definition
replication
transcription
translation |
|
|
Term
protein synthesis:
mutations |
|
Definition
| change in base sequence of DNA that may be inherited by offspring |
|
|
Term
| point mutations do not result in... |
|
Definition
change in length of the genome or gene (even if its a nonsense mutation and results in truncated protein)
this is because point mutations are always substitutions |
|
|
Term
| common types of mutations |
|
Definition
| base-pair substitution, base-pair insertion, and base-pair deletion |
|
|
Term
types of mutations:
point mutations |
|
Definition
occur when single nucleotide base is substituted by another
occurs in noncoding region or transcribed into a codon that codes for the same amino acid, no change in sequence
occurs in spot where there is a change in sequence, could range from insignificant to lethal |
|
|
Term
types of mutations:
nonsense mutation |
|
Definition
| produces a premature termination of polypeptide chain by changing one of the codons to a stop codon |
|
|
Term
types of mutations:
frame-shift mutation |
|
Definition
base-pair insertion and deletion, addition or loss of nucleotides
more serious effect on coded protein, will change the reading frame of mRNA
protein, if synthesized, will most likely be nonfunctional |
|
|
Term
types of mutations:
mutagenesis |
|
Definition
creation of mutations
caused by internal genetic "mistakes" or external, cancer-causing agents called mutagens
internal-can occur during DNA replication
transposons-mobile pieces of DNA that can insert themselves into genes and cause mutaions |
|
|
Term
| mutation will only be inhertied if it occurs in... |
|
Definition
| germ (sex) cell line, in somatic cells it will not be passed on but plays a role in development of tumors |
|
|
Term
"use and disuse"
"in-heritance of acquired characteristics" |
|
Definition
Lamarck, first theory on evolutionary processes
he was wrong! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
individuals who inherited favorable variations are more likely to live longer and produce more offspring
favorable variation becomes more common from one generation to the next |
|
|
Term
| source of hereditary variation lies in... |
|
Definition
| processes of mutation and genetic recombination |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all genes of all individuals in a population at a given time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| evolution is characterized by long periods of stasis punctuated by evolutionary change occuring in spurts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| paleontology, biogeography, comparitive anatomy, comparitive embryology, and molecular biology |
|
|
Term
| hardy-weinberg equilibrium |
|
Definition
evolution is result of changing gene frequencies within a population
for this not to occur, 5 conditons must be met:
very large population
no mutations that affect gene pool
mating between individuals is random
no net migration of individuals in/out of pop
genes in pop are all equally successful at reproducing
p^2+2pq+q^2=1
where p=frequency of TT
pq=Tt
q=tt
so p+q=1 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plant, animal, and bacteriophages |
|
|
Term
| virus can only infect a host cell that has... |
|
Definition
| a surface receptor for the virus' capsid (protein coat) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| group of RNA viruses that use their genome as a template for DNA synthesis, by the enzyme reverse transcriptase (HIV is a retrovirus) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small, circular rings of DNA in bacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plasmids capable of intergration into bacterial genomes |
|
|
Term
genetic variance of bacteria:
transformation |
|
Definition
| foreign chromosome fragments (plasmids) incorporated into bacterial chromosomes via recombination |
|
|
Term
genetic variance of bacteria:
conjugation |
|
Definition
sexual mating in bacteria; cytoplasmic conjugation bridge forms, genetic material transferred from donor male (+) to recepient female (-)
only bacteria that have sex factors (type of plasmid) can conjugate |
|
|
Term
genetic variance of bacteria:
transduction |
|
Definition
| fragments of bacterial chromosome accidently become packaged into viral progeny during a viral infection |
|
|
Term
| agents of microevolutionary change |
|
Definition
natural selection
mutation
assortive mating (mates selected according to phenotype and proximity)
genetic drift (small pops called founder effect)
gene flow |
|
|
Term
| three modes of natural selection |
|
Definition
stabilizing selection(maintains well-adapted, uniform character by means of eliminates deviations from the norm)
directional selection(adaptive change over time, increase in individuals with extreme phenotype when organisms must adapt to a changing environment)
disruptive selection(leads to existence of two or more phenotypic forms within a population--polmorphism) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| behavior that benefits one individual at the expense of another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| emergence of a number of lineages from a single ancesteral species |
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Term
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Definition
convergent evolution(development of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a recent common ancestor)
divergent evolution(development of dissimilar characteristics in two or more lineages sharing a common ancestor)
parallel evolution(related species evolve in similar ways for a long period of time in response to analogous environmental selection pressures) |
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Term
monosaccharide reactions:
ester formation |
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Definition
mono. contain hydroxyl groups that can undergo same reactions as simple alcohols
converted to esters in presence of acid anhydride and base |
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Term
monosaccharide reactions:
oxidation |
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Definition
oxidized to carboxylic acids called aldonic acids
aldoses are reducing agents
any mono. with -OH on C-1 is a reducing sugar, can be oxidized |
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Term
monosaccharide reactions:
glycosidic reactions |
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Definition
| hemiacetal mono.s react with alcohol under acidic conditions, hydroxyl group transformed into an alkoxy group resulting in bond called glycosidic linkage (acetal is glycoside, which do not rotate and are stable in water) |
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Term
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Definition
when a mono reacts with an alcohol that is another mono
most common glycosidic linkage occurs between C-1 and C-4 , a 1,4'-link
also observe 1,2' and 1,6' bonds
links can be cleaved in presence of aqueous acid |
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Term
| key biological polysaccarides |
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Definition
cellulose (1,4' beta)
starch and glycogen (mostly 1,4' alpha, some 1,6' alpha) |
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Term
| cellulose vs. starch and glycogen |
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Definition
structural component of plants
stores energy in plants and animals(respectively) |
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Term
| all amino acids are chiral except for.. |
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Definition
| glycine (2 H on central carbon) |
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Term
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Definition
| dipolar ions, zwitter=hybrid in German |
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Term
| in acidic solution, amino acids are... |
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Definition
| fully protonated, two protons that can dissociate(one from carboxyl and one from amino) |
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Term
| in basic solution, amino acids are... |
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Definition
| deprotonated, two proton-accepting groups |
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Term
amino acids:
low pH vs high pH
intermediate pH? |
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Definition
low: carries excess positive charge
high: carries excess negative charge
inter: electrically neutral, pI (isoelectric point) exists as zwitterion |
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Term
| titration of amino acid with base |
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Definition
| first, carboxyl group is deprotonated then the amino group |
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Term
| amino acids pass through ? buffering stage, one at each ? |
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Definition
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Term
| four things to note about titration of amino acids: |
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Definition
adding base, carboxyl group is fully deprotonated before amino group loses its acidic proton
two moles of base must be added to deprotonate one mole of amino acids
buffering capacity is greatest at or near two dissociation constants (at pI, capacity is minimal)
possible to perform titration in reverse, with addition of acid (sequence of events is also reversed) |
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Term
| ratio of amino acids ions are dependent on... |
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Definition
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Term
| Henderson-Hasselbalch equation |
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Definition
defines relationship between pH and ration of conjugate acid to conjugate base
pH=pKa+log[conj base]/[conj acid] |
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Term
amino acids:
best buffering capacity occurs within... |
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Definition
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Term
| classification of amino acids accoring to side chains |
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Definition
| nonpolar, polar, acidic, or basic |
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Term
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Definition
R-groups that are saturated hydrocarbons
hydrophobic, decrease solubility of amino acid in water
often found at core of globular proteins that are in contact with hydrophobic region of phospholipid membrane |
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Term
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Definition
polar, uncharged R-groups
hydrophilic, increase solubility in water
found on protein surfaces, exposed to aqueous polar environment |
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Term
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Definition
R-groups contain carboxyl group
net negative charge at physiological pH
(pH 7.4), with three distinct pKa's
shifts pI and titration curve, three moles of base needed to deprotonate |
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Term
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Definition
R-groups contain an amino group
carry net positive charge at physiological pH
three dissociation constants, which shifts titration curve and pI towards alkaline pH, three moles needed to neutralize |
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Term
| use pI to predict amino acid charge at a given pH |
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Definition
| if pHpI, think negative charge |
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Term
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Definition
amino acids joined by peptide bonds between carboxyl group of one amino acid and amino group of the other
bond formed via condensation reaction
bond cleaved by hydrolysis (catalyzed by acid or base) |
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Term
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Definition
terminal residues:
free-alpha amino=amino-terminal or N-terminal (left)
free carboxyl group=carboxyl-terminal or C-terminal (right)
rotaion limited around peptide bond because resonance gives C-N partial double bond character |
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Term
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Definition
can be a few to a thousand amino acids in length
functions:enzymes, hormones, membrane pores, receptors, and elements of cell structure |
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Term
| four structural levels of proteins |
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Definition
primary(sequence of amino acids)
secondary(α-helix and β-pleated sheet, governed by H-bond interactions within and between peptide chains)
tertiary(3-D shape of the protein, determined by hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions)
quarternary(arrangement of polypeptide subunits to yeild a functional protein molecule) |
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Term
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Definition
loses their 3-D structure and revert to random-coil state
caused by detergent, change in pH, temp, or solute concentration
permanent damage, but can be renatured with removal of reagent (maybe) |
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Term
| treatment of phenols with oxidizing reagents produces... |
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Definition
| quinones(2,5-cyclohexadienes-1,4-diones) |
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Term
| three steps of halogenation |
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Definition
initiation--formation of free radicals, extremely reactive and readily attack alkanes
X2+(heat or light)--->2X(with an unpaired e-)
propogation--radical produces another radical, reacts with an alkane to form HX and alkyl radical, then alkyl radical reacts with X2 to form alkyl halide and X(with unpaired e-)
X(unpaired e-) + RH --> HX + R(unpaired e-)
R(un e-) +X2 --> RX + X(un e-)
termination--two free radicals combine with one another to form stable molecule
2X(un e-) --> X2
X(un e-) + R(un e-) --> RX
2R(un e-) --> R2 |
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