the ability to discriminate two points and visualize them as two points, even though they are extremely close together.

Dependent on the wavelength of the light source and can be calclated to be about 1/2 the wavelength.

Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, salts & Water

Elemental breakdown:

Oxygen +75%; Carbon +10%; Hydrogen 10%; Nitrogen +2%; Sulfur ~0.2%; Phosphorus ~0.3%; Chlorine ~0.1%; (small amts of Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, etc.)

Glycerophospholipids

Contain a glycerol linked to two fatty acyl groups and one phosphate group

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Contains a sphingosine linked to one fatty acyl group and are usually linked to a phosphate plus a choline, sugar or a complex oligosaccharide.

Occur primarily in the outer face of the plama membrane in eukaryotes

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contains one fatty acyl roup remvoed, cutting the ration of nonpolar to polar struture in half.

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Proteins attached to integral membrane components (lipids or proteins) by noncovalent bonds. May be removed from a membrane by relatively mild treaments.

Protein that cannot be released from a membreane without breaking covelnt bonds or disruptiong the lipid bilayer.

Protein that contains one or more protien domains that extend across the lipid bilayer.

Usually adopt an alpha helical secondary strucutre & consist primarily of amino acids w/ hydrophobic side chains.

May form ion channels  or active transport or be facilitated diffusion carriers or receptors for growth factors or hormones.

Electrostatic gradients

(Potential fields)

Diffusion that can drive net movements of charged particles such as ions in a fluid.

Charged components in a fluid will be attracted to opposite chares and repelled by similar charges.

The sum of the forces acting on a charged component.

Concentration gradients + electrostatic fields.

Lower Solute Concentration

Higher water connetration

(Can cause the cell to swell & burst if the outside environment is this.)

Higher solute concentration

Lower water concentration

(Can cause the cell to shrink if the outside environment is this.)

Same total solute concentration inside the cell and outside the cell

Does not require energy expenditure.

Concentration gradients drive a net force and each component in any fluid will diffuse from regions of higer concentrations toward regions of lower concentrations.

Electrostatic gradients cause charged particles to be attracted to opposite charges and repelled by similar charges.

Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide (dissolved gases) and lipid soluble molecules cross easily through the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane.

Water diffuses from areas of lower solute concentration (hypotonic) to areas of higher solute concentrationss (hypertonic)

A channel or uniporter carrier is used;

 The movement is down the component' electrochemical gradient and shows saturation kinetics.

A protein carrier moves the particle independently of its electrochemical gradient;

The carrier consumes energy (ususally ATP)

Process whereby the cell membrane engulfs extracellular material, moves into the cell and forms membrane-bound vesicles.

Manufactured and modified materials are secreted by this process and eliminated from the cell.

Have no nuclear envelope separating the nuclear material from the cytoplasm;

Usually unicellular;

Often occur in loosely organized colonies.

Contain a nuclear envelope that separates their nuclear compartment from their cytoplamsic compartment;

May be unicellular or multicellular.

Peptidoglycans

Layer of sugars and amino acids present in the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria that provides support and protection.

The largest functional compartmetn in eukaryotic animal cells;

Consists primarily of moderately dark-staining material conaining proteins, other macromolecules, small molecules, ionsand water;

Area of glycolysis and other general metabolic processes.

Free Ribosomes

Organelles that appear scattered in the cytosol;

 Egaged in protein synthesis;

Site of formation of all of the proteins that will function in the cytosol, nucleus and peroxisomes.

Rough Endoplamsic Reticulum (rER)

Consists of flattened sacs of cytoplamic membrane with ribosmes associated with the cytoplamic surface.

Stacks of flattened polarized sacs of smooth cytoplamic membranes;

One surface recieves vesicles fro the rER (the cis face);

modifies the proteins and releases to lysosome, secretory granule components or the plama membrane.

Spherical sacs of membrane cntaining materials that will be secreted from the cell by exocytosis.

Spherical sacs of membrane-containing hydrolytic enzymes that function in acidic environments (~4.5-5.0);

Function in digestion of material brought into the cell by phagocytosis or in digestion of damaged organelles.

Organelle composed of a smooth outer membrane and a folded finger-like inner membrane.

Space inside the inner membrane is called the matrix.

Synthesizes most of the cell's ATP.

Peroxisomes

Organelles that consist of a membrane-lined vesicle that typically contains catalase which generates hydrogen peroxide used to detoxify various organi molecules;

Involved in beta oxidation of fatty acids and are involved in photresperation and the glyoxylate cycle in plant cells

Occluding Junctions

or Zonula Occulents

Regions in which the outer layers of the plama membranes of associated cells appear fussed (no extracellular space);

Prevent passage of materials through the extracellular space between cells and allow an epitelium to serve as a barrier.

Include several types of junctions including Zonula adherens & macula adherens.

Associated cells appear to be attached by a band of dense material in the intercellular space, which is associeated with dense material on the cytoplasmic surface of each membrane.

Junction that allow ions to move from the cytoplam of one cell to the cytoplam of an adjacent cell containing a nexus or gap junction

The process of cell division in which the nucleus divides and consists of four phases.

Meiosis

The process of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that reduces the number of chromosomes in reproductive cells from diploid to haploid, leading to the production of gametes in animals and spores in plants

Mitosis Phase 1: Chromosomes become distinct and nucleos disappears; centriosle and asters and spindle appear; nuclear membrane disappears.

Mitosis phase 2: chromosomes move to the equator of the cell and duplicate.

Mitosis phase 3: The two chromatids split apart and start migration toward the pooles of the spindle; the spindle loses its definition.

Mitosis phase 4: chromosomes lengthen and become less distinct; nucleoli reappear.

Replication strategy in which the virus rapidly replicates  after entering a host cell, then triggers lysis of the host cell to release the assembled viruses

Replication strategy in which a DNA copy of the viral nucleic acid (the provirus) becomes incorporated into the host cell chormosome where it is replicated along with the host DNA.

 May cause little alteration to the host cell phenotype or may cause detectable changes.

Monomer of DNA and RNA composed of pentose sugar, nitrogenous base and a phosphate.

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Cytosine

and

Uracil (RNA) or Thymine (DNA

Adenine

and

Guanine

Thymine

ATP

GTP

CTP

UTP

TTP

Messenger RNA

(mRNA)

Codes for the amino acids sequence (primary structure) of polypeptide chains in proteins

Transfer RNA

(tRNA)

Carries amino acids (as aminoacyl groups) into protein synthesis and uses the nucleotide sequence in another RNA to determine where to insert the amino acid it carries

Ribosomal RNA

(rRNA)

Forms the structural framework of the ribosomal subunits and a loop of this appears to be capable of catalyzing the formation of peptide bonds.

Enzyme that seperates the two strands of the DNA molecule that will be replicated so that each strand can serve as a template for the synthesis of a new strand.

Uses ATP

Enzyme that moves along the separated DNA strand which has a free 3' "free end" and uses that strand as a template.

Synthesizes a new strand complementary to the template strand and follows closely behind the helicase.

Okazaki Fragments

A relatively short fragment of DNA (with an RNA primer at the 5' terminus) created on the lagging strand during DNA replication.

Single-strand DNA binding protein

Binds to and protects single-stranded regions of DNA exposed in the lagging strand.

Synthesizes a short segment of RNA complementary to the template strand of DNA.

Usually about 10 nucleotides in legnth

DNA Ligase

Joins the free ends of adjacent segments (Okazaki fragments) of the new DNA strand to form a continuous strand.  

Mechanism to repair damaged DNA during DNA replication.

Involves removing and replacing single damaged nitrogenous bases (esp uracil).

Mechanism to repair DNA damaged during DNA replication.

General process that removes almost any type of damage as long as one of the two DNA strnads is undamaged.

Uses metylation to see which strand is older and therefore
"correct"

A set of genes transcribed together under control of an operator gene.

Segment of DNA containing adjacent genes including structural genes, an operator gene and a regulatory gene.

Segements of DNA that may or may not be transcribed depending on their location  and is involved in regulation of transcription of nearby structural genes

Intron

or

Spacer DNA

Sequences of DNA that are transcribed but are removed during processing and do not appear in the cytosplasm as parts of functional RNAs; may serve simple mechanical connection functions

RNA Polymerase I

Enzyme which uses DNA as a template to synthesize rRNA

Enzyme that uses DNA as a template to synthesize mRNA and U1-U5 snRNP

Enzyme that uses DNA as a template to synthesize tRNA, 5S rRNA & U6 snRNP

Regulatory DNA sequences that bind proteins that increase transcription of the associated genes

The proteins that bind to enhancers (which increase transcription of the associated gene)

Aminoacyl Sythetase Enzyme

A technicque for isolation & characterization of DNA that consits of restriction enzymes digests of DNA seperated by gel electroporesis, transferred (blotted) onto nitrocellulose sheets or similar material & tested against a specific, labled DNA probe for complementary sequences.

A technique for isolation & characterization of RNA that cosists of electrophoretically seperated RNA molecules transferred onto nitrocellulose sheets & tested against labled DNA probes.

Wiedely used to estimate the amount of a specific mRNA in a cell at differnt points in development.

A technique for isolation & characterization of proteins that involves the seperation of proteins by gel electrophoresis, transfer to nitrocellulose sheets & probing with labled antibodies directed against specific proteins.

This is the present confirmatory test for HIV infection directed against specific viral protiens in blood.

A method of separating substances, especially proteins, and analyzing molecular structure based on the rate of movement of each component in a colloidal suspension while under the influence of an electric field.

Muscular system

System that supports the body, protects organs and produces blood cells

System that transports nutrients, wastes, gases (oxygen & carbon dioxide), hormones & blood cells thoughtout the body; also protects the body against foreign organisms

System that responds to internal and external stimuli; regulates and coordinates body activities and movements

System that limits and protects the body as a whole; prevents excess loss of water and functions in regulating body temperature

System that enzymatially breaks down food materials into usable and absorbable nutrients

System that functions in the exchange of gases (oxygen & carbon dioxide)

System that regulates body growth and fucntion via hormones.