• subdivision of autonomic nervous system that causes body to "rest and digest"
  • pupil constriction
  • stimulation of saliva flow
  • constriction of bronchi
  • slowing of heartbeat
  • stimulation of peristalsis and secretion
  • stimulation of bile release
  • bladder constriction
• controlled by cranial nerves and sacral spinal nerves
  • III(occulomotor), VII(facial), and IX(glossopharyngeal) control everything above brainstem
  • X(vagus) controls everything below brainstem
  • pelvic splanchnic spinal nerves control bladder
• transmission (bottom)

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• subdivision of autonomic nervous system responsible for "fight or flight"
  • increased heart rate
  • redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion
  • increases blood glucose concentration (epinephrine and GPCR)
  • relaxes bronchi
  • decreased digestion and peristalsis
  • dilates eyes to maximize light intake
  • releases epinephrine into bloodstream
• controlled by thoracolumbar spinal nerves
  • preganglionic thoracolumbar spinal nerves synapse in paravertebral column, prevertebral column, or adrenal medulla
  • postganglionic continue to target tissue (or there are none in case of adrenal medulla ganglion)
• transmission (top 3)

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• meninges - thick sheaths of connective tissue that protect brain, keep it anchored in skull, and resorb CSF
  • 3 layers
    • dura mater (hard)
    • arachnoid mater (web-like)
    • pia mater (soft)
• Cerebrospinal fluid(CSF)
  • aqueous solution in which brain and spinal cord rest
  • made by specialized cells in ventricles

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• located where brain meets spinal cord
• controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes
• made up of medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum
  • medulla oblongata - lower brain structure responsible for regulating breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
  • pons - series of nuclei above medulla that contain sensory and motor pathways between cortex and medulla
  • cerebellum - maintains posture, balance, and coordinates body movements
    • damage may result in clumsiness, slurred speech, and loss of balance - ataxias
    • alcohol impairs cerebellar function

• located just above hindbrain and receives sensory and motor information from rest of body
• associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli
• prominent structures include superior and inferior colliculi
  • superior colliculus - receives visual sensory input
  • inferior colliculus - receives auditory sensory input and has role in reflexive reactions in response to loud sounds

• located above midbrain
• associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes as well as emotion and memory
• divides into telencephalon and diencephalon
  • telencephalon
    • cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system
  • diencephalon
    • thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland

• neuropsychology - study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of brain
• studying specimens w/ brain lesions
  • allows researchers to observe effects caused by missing piece and therefore figure out what piece does
  • less helpful in humans as lesions typically hurt more than one structure, but model is more applicable
  • very helpful with animal models as we can create artificial lesions or place electrodes
• electrically stimulating and recording brain activity allows us to create cortical maps
  • relies on patient to sit awake and alert mid-surgery as neurosurgeon stimulates parts of cortex
• recording electrical activity produced by brain itself
  • electroencephalogram (EEG) - provides broad patterns of electrical activity through recordings taken from several electrodes across scalp
• rCBF - regional cerebral blood flow
  • allows us to detect broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of brain

• rCBF - regional cerebral blood flow scanning device detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of brain
• CT - computed tomography uses multiple X- rays taken at different angles in order to create 3-dimensional image built on cross-sectional slice images of tissue
• PET - positron emission tomography uses radioactive sugars and tracks their dispersion and uptake throughout target tissue to create image and determine metabolic rates in tissue
• MRI - magnetic resonance imaging uses magnetic field to interact w/ hydrogen and map out hydrogen-dense regions of body
• fMRI - uses MRI techniques, but specifically measures changes associated w/ blood flow (especially useful for monitoring neural activity)

• forebrain structure that serves as relay station for incoming sensory information that sorts and transmits it to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
  • deals with all senses except smell

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• forebrain structure that:
  • serves many homeostatic functions such as metabolism regulation, temperature, and water balance
  • acts as key player in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior, and sexual behavior
  • controls some endocrine function as it communicates with pituitary gland
  • acts as primary regulator of autonomic nervous system and drives behaviors of hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
• 3 subdivisions
  • lateral hypothalamus (LH) - hunger center of brain
  • ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) - satiety center that signals to stop eating
  • anterior hypothalamus (AH) - controls sexual behavior as well as regulates sleep and body temperature

• series of forebrain structures that primarily coordinate muscle movement
  • receive information from cortex and relay it via the extrapyramidal system to the brain and spinal cord
    • extrapyramidal system gathers info about body position
  • makes movements smooth and posture steady
    • Parkinson's is example of what happens when parts of basal ganglia are destroyed
  • also been shown to play roles in schizophrenia and OCD

• series of forebrain structures associated with emotion and memory
• consists of three primary structures
  • septal nuclei
    • contain one of the primary pleasure centers of the brain and are associated with addictive behaviors
  • amygdala
    • plays important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors including fear and rage
  • hippocampus
    • plays important role in learning and memory processes - consolidates information to form long-term memories, and redistributes remote memories to cerebral cortex 
    • communicates with other parts of limbic system through fornix

• prefrontal cortex
  • manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions
  • associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning
  • lesions can lead to impulsivity, less control of behavior, depression, and apathy
• motor cortex
  • initiation of voluntary movements by sending neural impulses down spinal cord
  • neurons in cortex arranged systematically according to parts of the body in pattern known as the motor homunculus
    • areas of body that require more precise control take up larger area of M1 in proportion to their size
• Broca's area 
  • important for producing speech
  • found only in dominant hemisphere (usually left)

• located at rear of frontal lobe
• contains somatosensory cortex
  • involved in somatosensory information processing
  • receives all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
  • similar to M1, S1 also organized as homunculus 
• central region of parietal lobe associated with spatial processing and manipulation
  • makes it possible to orient oneself and other objects in 3D space, spatially manipulate objects, and apply spatial orientation skills (like map-reading)

• very rear of the brain
• contain visual cortex (striate cortex)
  • appears striped/furrowed under microscope hence name
  • processes visual information
• areas in occipital lobe also implicated in learning and motor control

• most lateral and lowest lobes of brain
• contain auditory cortex
  • primary site of sound processing including speech, music, and other sound info
• contain Wernicke's area
  • associated with language reception and comprehension (speech processing, not production)
• some areas additionally function in memory processing, emotion, and language
  • may be due to close proximity to hippocampus and other limbic structures

• dominant hemisphere
  • typically defined as one that is more heavily stimulated during language reception and production
  • left hemisphere in most individuals
  • primary analytic function (presence of Wernicke's and Broca's area)
• nondominant hemisphere
  • associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing
  • usually right hemisphere
  • processes pieces of stimulus and assembles holistic image

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• association area 
  • area of cortex that integrates input from diverse brain regions
  • prefrontal cortex, Wernicke's, Broca's
• projection area
  • area that performs more rudimentary or simple perceptual and motor tasks
  • V1, S1, M1

• neurotransmitter involved in both CNS and PNS
• in PNS
  • transmits nerve impulses to muscles
  • only neurotransmitter involved in parasympathetic nervous system as well as preganglionic portions of sympathetic nervous system
• in CNS
  • linked to attention and arousal
  • loss of cholinergic neurons in hippocampus associated with Alzheimer's disease

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• also referred to as monoamines or biogenic amines (along with serotonin)
• epinephrine and norepinephrine
  • control alertness and wakefulness
  • primary neurotransmitters of sympathetic nervous system
  • norepinephrine acts locally while epinephrine acts more systematically as hormone
  • low levels of norepinephrine associated with depression and high levels associated with anxiety and mania
• dopamine
  • important role in movement and posture as one of the main neurotransmitter involved in the basal ganglia
    • Parkinson's is caused by loss of dopaminergic neurons in basal ganglia
  • dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia -  associated with positive symptoms of schizophrenia including delusions hallucinations, and agitations 
    • arises from too much or oversensitivity to dopamine
    • does not account for all of disease

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• classified as monoamine or biogenic neurotransmitter along with catecholamines
• plays roles in regulating mood, eating, sleep, and dreaming
• similar to norepinephrine in ability to cause mental disorders
  • too much serotonin produces manic states
  • too little produces depressive states

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• GABA - γ-aminobutyric acid
  • produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
  • important role in stabilizing neural activity in brain
• Glycine
  • proteinogenic amino acid
  • inhibitory neurotransmitter like GABA that acts through opening of chloride channels
• Glutamate
  • proteinogenic amino acid
  • excitatory neurotransmitter of central nervous system
  • NMDA, AMPA, and kainate receptors

• longer chains of amino acids can act as neuromodulators which have longer-lasting, slower-acting, more complicated chain of events than neurotransmitters
• endorphins
  • important class of neuropeptides that act as natural painkillers
  • their actions are similar to those of morphine and other opioids

• beginning of neural development in growing fetus

Process

1. ectoderm overlying notochord furrows to form neural groove surrounded by neural folds
   • neural crest cells at leading edge of neural fold migrate throughout body to form disparate tissues
2. remainder of furrow closes to form neural tube - CNS
3. neural tube has alar plate (sensory neurons) and basal plate (motor neurons)
4. neural tube continues to invaginate over time yielding three swellings that become five

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• primitive reflex - reflexes specific to infancy that disappear with age
• Rooting reflex - automatic turning of head in direction of stimulus that touches cheek
• Moro reflex - infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out arms, slowly retracting, and crying
  • likely evolutionary holdover from monkeys who instinctively need to clutch trees
• Babinski reflex - toes spread apart automatically when sole of foot is stimulated
• grasping reflex - infant automatically closes fingers around object placed in hand

• sensation - transduction of information from internal and external environment into electrical signals in the nervous system
  • performed by receptors in PNS which forward stimuli to CNS in form of action potentials and neurotransmitters
  • raw signal
• perception - processing of information coming from PNS to make sense of its significance
  • complex manipulation that includes both external sensory experience and internal activities of brain and spinal cord
  • helps us make sense of world

• distal stimuli
  • stimuli that originate outside body and have not yet reached body - part of outside world
  • example: campfire
• proximal stimuli
  • stimuli that directly interact with and affect sensory receptors and inform observer about presence of distal stimuli
  • example: photons from campfire that reach observer's eye and heat from campfire felt by thermoreceptors are proximal stimuli

• threshold - minimum amount of stimulus that renders difference in perception
• absolute threshold - minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate sensory system (be transduced)
  • threshold of sensation, not perception
  • how bright, loud, or intense stimulus must be before it is sensed
• threshold of conscious perception - minimum amount of stimulus that, after being transduced, is required to perceived by individual
  • stimuli may be transduced and reach CNS, but do not reach higher-order brain regions that control attention and consciousness
  • subliminal perception - perception of stimulus below given threshold leading to it not being consciously perceived
  • discrimination testing(psychophysical discrimination testing) is way of analyzing limit in human perceptive ability
• difference threshold (just-noticeable difference/jnd) - minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive difference
  • when analyzing this threshold, it is important to look at the ratios instead of actual differences
  • Weber's law
    • there is a constant ratio between change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce jnd and magnitude of original stimulus

• focuses on changes in our perception of same stimuli depending on both internal/psychological and external/environmental contexts
  • how loud would someone need to yell your name in crowd to get attention
    • depends on size of crowd, expectation of being called, makeup of crowd and comfort with other individuals, personality, etc.
• allows us to explore personal bias
  • tendency of subjects to systematically respond to stimulus in particular way due to non-sensory factors

• our detection of stimuli can change over time through adaptation
• can have both physiological/sensory component and psychological/perceptual component
• one way mind and body try to focus attention on only most relevant stimuli

• Important terms to know functions of
  • sclera - white of eye; provides protection
  • cornea - only part of outer eye not covered by sclera; gathers and focuses light
  • pupil - hole in eye where light enters
  • iris - composed of dilator and constrictor pupillae muscles that control pupil size
  • ciliary body - produces aqueous humor to bathe front part of eye
  • canal of Schlemm - drains aqueous humor
  • lens - helps control refraction of incoming light; controlled by ciliary muscle and Z fibers/suspensory ligaments
  • retina - functional part of the eye that contains all important sensory receptors

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• Photoreceptor cells are found in the retina and are the cells that actually transduce photons as electrical signals to the CNS
• Rods - responsible for light/dark detection
  • most prevalent of the two broader categories of photoreceptors
  • contain single pigment called rhodopsin preventing them from coding any sort of color differences - only light/dark
  • not good at picking up detail
  • makes them very functional at night whereas cones are not
  • most concentrated in more peripheral regions of the eye and become less so as we approach macula and fovea
• Cones - responsible for color detection
  • much fewer in number than rods
  • found in three varieties each containing its own pigment to capture three broad ranges of light
    • short cones, medium cones, and broad cones
  • great for picking up detail but work badly in low light
  • most concentrated at centermost point of the macula known as the fovea which contains only cones - place of highest visual acuity
  • decrease concentration when moving out from fovea
• Optic disk - place on retina where optic nerve leaves eye
  • contains no photoreceptors and therefore creates blindspot
  • located at slightly different places in each eye which is why there is not a blindspot in our vision

• Photoreceptor cells (mentioned elsewhere)
  • rods and cones
• bipolar cells
  • highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones
• retinal ganglion cells
  • cells that group together to form optic nerve and project to CNS
• horizontal cells 
  • receive input from multiple photoreceptors in an area in order to adjust the signal that is sent to the bipolar cells
• amacrine cells
  • receive input from bipolar cells in an area in order to adjust signal that is sent to retinal ganglion cells

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• parallel processing - ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion
  • people recognize moving car easily from distance as they are familiar w/ motions and shapes
• feature detection - cells in visual cortex are specialized to detect color, shape, and motion
  • color - cones are responsible for color detection and visual cortex has blots of cells responsible for processing different colors
  • shape - detected by parvocellular cells in visual cortex which have high color spatial resolution
    • permit us to see very fine detail
    • low temporal resolution - do not work well with moving objects
  • motion - detected by magnocellular cells in visual cortex which have high temporal resolution
    • permit us to see blurry images of moving objects
    • have low spatial resolution

• Important terms to know
  • the three ossicles
  • eustachian tube
  • pinna
  • tympanic membrane
  • bony labyrinth
  • membranous labyrinth

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• Important terms
  • organ of corti
  • basilar membrane
  • tectorial membrane
  • perilymph/endolymph
  • bony laybyrinth (scala vestibuli and tympani)
  • membranous labyrinth (scala media)
  • hair cells
    • kinocilium
    • stereocilium
  • CNVIII - vestibulocochlear nerve

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• place theory - location of hair cell on basilar membrane determines perception of pitch when hair cell is vibrated
  • highest frequency pitches cause vibrations of basilar membrane close to oval window
  • lowest frequency at tip of basilar membrane
• this means that cochlea is tonotopically organized

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• one of the chemical senses
  • responds to volatile or aerosolized compounds
• olfactory chemoreceptors/nerves
  • located in olfactory epithelium in upper portion of nasal cavity
  • chemical stimuli must bind to specific olfactory chemoreceptors meaning that there are a tremendous number of specific chemoreceptors
• after binding to respective olfactory chemoreceptors, chemical stimuli induce transduction through the olfactory pathway
  • receptor cells send their signals to the olfactory bulb which relays them through the olfactory tract to higher regions of the brain (like limbic system, hence familiarity of smells)

• particular type of chemical stimuli that are released by one person/animal and bind with olfactory receptors to cause a behavior change in another person/animal
  • debatable role in humans
  • important for social, foraging, and sexual behaviors in many animals 

• one of the chemical senses
  • taste chemoreceptors are responsive to dissolved compounds
• taste chemoreceptors
  • respond to five basic tastes
    • sweet
    • sour
    • salty
    • bitter
    • umami/savory
  • found as groups of cells called taste buds which can be found in little bumps along tongue known as papillae
• after binding w/ receptor, chemical stimuli activate pathway in which taste information travels from taste buds to brainstem and then ascends to the taste center of the thalamus before being sent to higher-order brain regions

• Pacinian Corpuscle
  • respond to deep pressure and vibration
• Meissner Corpuscle
  • respond to light touch
• Merkle cells/discs
  • respond to deep pressure and texture
• Ruffini Endings
  • respond to stretch
• Free nerve endings
  • respond to pain and temperature

• bottom-up(data driven) processing
  • object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection
  • brain takes individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create cohesive image before determining what object is
• top-down(conceptually driven) processing
  • driven by memories and expectations that allow brain to recognize whole object and then recognize components based on expectations
  • allows us to quickly recognize objects w/out needing to analyze their specific parts
• perceptual organization
  
  • ability to use both processes in tandem with all other sensory clues about object to create a complete picture or idea
  • both systems are required to functionally perceive external stimuli

• depth perception
  • can rely on both monocular and binocular cues
  • monocular cues
    • relative size of object, partial obscuring of one object by another, convergence of parallel lines at distance, position of object in visual field, lighting and shadowing
  • binocular cues
    • slight differences in images projected on the two retinas and angle required between two eyes to bring object into focus
• form
  • determined through parallel processing and feature detection
  • motion of object is perceived through magnocellular cells
• constancy
  • idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same despite differences in environment
  • we perceive white paper as same color whether it is illuminated by fluorescent lights, incandescent bulbs, or sunlight
  • we constancy for color, brightness, size, and shape depending on context

• Gestalt Principles - ways for brain to infer missing parts of picture when picture is incomplete
  • law of proximity - elements close to one another tend to be perceived as unit
  • law of similarity - objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
  • law of good continuation - elements that appear to follow in same pathway tend to be grouped together
    • tendency to perceive continuous patterns in stimuli rather than abrupt changes
  • subjective contours - perceiving contours and, therefore, shapes that are not actually present in stimulus
  • law of closure - when space is enclosed by contour, it tends to be perceived as complete figure
    • also refers to fact that certain figures tend to be perceived as more complete than they really are

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• habituation - repeated exposure to same stimulus can cause a decrease in response
  • seeing cadaver first time vs. tenth time
• dishabituation - recovery of response to stimulus after habituation has occurred 
  • often observed when, late in habituation of stimulus, a second stimulus is presented
  • second stimulus interrupts the habituation process and thereby causes an increase in response to the original stimulus
  • always refers to changes in response to original stimulus, not new one
  • temporary
  • driving on highway and getting bored until you take an exit and are re-alerted to surroundings

• type of associative learning (creation of a pairing/association either between two stimuli or between behavior and response
• takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli
• Basics of classical conditioning
  • original experiment: Pavlov's dog 
  • unconditioned stimulus - any stimulus that brings about an unconditioned response
    • food
  • unconditioned response - innate or reflexive response to unconditioned stimulus
    • dog drooling
  • neutral stimulus - stimulus that does not produce reflexive response
    • bell before conditioning process
    • neutral stimuli are signaling stimuli if they have potential to be used as conditioning stimulus
  • conditioned stimulus - normally neutral stimulus that now elicits a reflexive response
    • bell
  • conditioned response - reflexive response that is now caused by conditioned stimulus
    
    • dog drooling in response to bell
• process referred to as acquisition
• extinction - conditioned stimulus presented w/out unconditioned stimulus enough times that organism can become habituated to conditioned stimulus
• spontaneous recovery - extinct conditioned stimulus presented again leading to weak conditioned response
• generalization - broadening effect by which stimulus similar enough to conditioned stimulus can produce conditioned response
  • little albert afraid of many white things after being conditioned to fear white rat
• discrimination - organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli (opposite of generalization)

• type of associative learning (creation of a pairing/association either between two stimuli or between behavior and response
• links voluntary behaviors w/ consequences in effort to alter frequency of those behaviors
• behaviorism - theory that all behaviors are conditioned
• encouraged through reinforcement and punishment
  • four possible relationships between stimulus and behavior

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• process of increasing likelihood that individual will perform behavior
• positive reinforcers add positive consequence or incentive following behavior
  • rewarding with candy
• negative reinforcers take away negative consequences following behavior
  • taking aspirin reduces headache
  • escape learning -  meant to reduce unpleasantness of something that already exists (headache)
  • avoidance learning - meant to prevent unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen (studying for MCAT)
• Primary reinforcer - a reinforcer that something responds to naturally (fish for dolphin)
• secondary reinforcer - conditioned reinforcer (clicker paired w/ fish acts as reward for dolphin)
• discriminative stimulus - indicates that reward is potentially available in operant conditioning paradigm

• uses conditioning to reduce frequency of behavior
• positive punishment - adds unpleasant consequence in response to behavior
  • being flogged
• negative punishment - removal of unpleasant consequence
  • parent takes away television

• rate at which desired behaviors are acquired is also affected by schedule being used to affect those behaviors
• fixed-ratio - reinforces behavior after specific number of performances of behavior
  • continuous reinforcement - behavior rewarded each time it occurs
• variable-ratio - reinforces behavior after varying number of performances of behavior, but such that average number of performances to receive reward is relatively constant
  • works the fastest and is most resistant to extinction
•  fixed-interval - reinforce first instance of behavior after specified time period
• variable-interval - reinforce behavior first instance of behavior after varying intervals of time
• shaping - process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors
  • train bird to spin by reinforcing behaviors that get progressively closer to desired behaviors

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• learning that occurs w/out reward but is spontaneously demonstrated once reward is introduced
• demonstrated by rats running through maze experiment
  • rats carried through maze and incentivized w/ food performed just as well as than rats trained to run maze using more standard operant conditioning techniques along the way (like shaping)

• preparedness - animals predisposed to learn certain behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts
  • animals most able to learn behaviors that coincide w/ natural behaviors
• instinctive drift - difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors to learn certain behaviors

• process of learning new behavior or gaining information by watching others
• Bobo doll experiment
  • children watched adult abuse bobo doll and copied behavior
  • children less likely to abuse doll when adult was seen punished
• associated w/ mirror neurons - neurons in frontal and parietal lobes that fire both when an individual performs an action and when individual observes someone else perform action
  • largely involved in motor processes but additionally thought to be related to empathy and vicarious emotions
• modeling - important aspect of observational learning in determining individual's behavior throughout lifetime
  • people learn what behaviors are acceptable through observance of others
  • strongest when model's words are consistent w/ his or her actions (something that parents have trouble w/)

• encoding - process of putting new information into memory
• automatic processing - much of the information we encode is absorbed passively from the environment
  • noticing temperature, route, or people you see on the a walk to work
  • don't have to focus on remembering these things for them to be encoded
• controlled(effortful) processing - some information is absorbed through actively working on encoding the information
  • studying for the MCAT

• visual encoding - visualizing information
• acoustic encoding - store way information sounds
• semantic encoding - putting information into a meaningful context
  • self-reference effect - putting information into context of our own lives
    • tend to recall information best when the context is more vivid and personally applicable
• maintenance rehearsal - repetition of piece of information to either keep w/in working memory or store in short-term and eventually long-term memory
• mnemonics
  • acronyms or rhythmic phrases that provide vivid organization of information we are trying to remember
  • method of loci - associating each item in list w/ location along route through building that has already been memorized
  • peg-word system - associating number w/ items that rhyme w/ or resemble numbers
  • useful for memorizing long lists of objects in order
• chunking(clustering) - taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning

• most fleeting type of memory storage
• consists of iconic and echoic
  • iconic - sensory visual memory
  • echoic - sensory auditory memory
• maintained by major projection areas of each sensory system
  • occipital lobe maintains many iconic memories
  • temporal lobe maintains many echoic memories
• information fades very quickly unless attended to
• whole-report vs. partial-report (mostly only applies to iconic memory)
  • whole-report - seeing geographic arrangement of letters and being asked to recall as many as letter as possible
    • one may recall very small number
  • partial-report - seeing geographic arrangement of letters and being asked to recall letter of particular row
    • one may recall entire row w/out problems and even get more right than they would have being asked to name any letter present in whole graphic
  • in the time it takes to list out a few items, entire list fades, but it is clear that all letter make their way to iconic memory because any small subset can be recalled at will

• type of memory storage
• information from sensory memory that we pay attention to is encoded into short-term memory storage
• fades very quickly (~30s w/out rehearsal)
• limited in capacity to approximately seven items (7±2 rule)
• capacity of this memory can be increased through clustering information
• duration can be extended using maintenance rehearsal
• short-term memory housed primarily in hippocampus (also responsible for consolidation of these memories)

• form of memory storage
• w/ rehearsal, short-term memories can be consolidated by hippocampus into long-term memories
• elaborative rehearsal - association of information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory
  • closely tied to self-reference effect in that ideas we are able to relate to everyday lives are more likely to find way into long-term memory
• memories are moved, over time, back to the cerebral cortex
  • very long-term memories (names, birthdays, faces of parents) not generally affected by damage to hippocampus
• two types
  • implicit and explicit

• forms of long-term memory
• implicit/non-declarative/procedural
  • memory of skills and conditioned responses
  • how to ride a bike
• explicit/declarative
  • memories that require conscious recall
  • semantic memory
    • facts that we know
    • 1st president of the US
  • episodic memory
    • our personal experiences
    • last summer's camping trip
• memory disorders can affect one type while leaving the others alone

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• form of memory retrieval
• process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned
• much easier than recall - retrieval and statement of previously learned information
• recognizing information - "that looks familiar"

• form of retrieval
• information that has been previously stored into long-term memory may not be able to be recalled, but one may be able to relearn it much faster - demonstrates storage of information into long-term memory
• spacing effect - the longer the amount of time between session of learning, the greater the retention of the information later on
  • explains why cramming not nearly as effective as spacing out studying over extended period

• form of retrieval
• ability to retrieve and restate previously learned information
• semantic network - brain's way of organizing memories so that concepts are linked together based on similar meaning
• brain organizes information so that it can take advantage of environmental cues to tell it where to find a given memory
• spreading activation - one node of semantic network being activated allows us to unconsciously activate other linked concepts
  • we see red and may think of fire engines and roses
  • priming - recall is aided by first being presented w/ word or phrase  that is close to desired semantic memory
• context effects - another retrieval cue in which memory is aided by being in the same physical location where encoding took place
•  state-dependent effect - memories that are stored in a certain mental state (caffeinated, drunk, etc.) is better recalled in that mental state
• serial position effect - retrieval cue that appears while learning lists
  • primacy effect - we are much better at remembering items that are at beginning of list
  • recency effect - we are also better at remembering item at end of list
  • primacy effect remains stronger over time than recency effect  

• Alzheimer's - degenerative brain disorder marked by progressive dementia, memory loss, and atrophy of the brain
  • memory loss proceeds in retrograde fashion (new memories before old memories)
  • sundowning - increased dysfunction in late afternoon and evening
  • Physiological markers
    • neurofibrillary tangles of phosphorylated tau protein
    • β-amyloid plaque development
• Korsakoff's Syndrome - marked by retrograde and anterograde amnesia, confabulation (process of creating vivid but fabricated memories)
  • caused by thiamine deficiency in brain (can be caused by excessive alcohol consumption over time)
• agnosia - loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds (usually only one of the three)
  • usually caused by physical damage to the brain like caused by stroke or neurological disorder (like MS)

• memories are lost naturally over time as neurochemical trace of short-term memory fades
• loss of these memories manifests in a curve of forgetting

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• common reason for memory loss in which retrieval error is caused by existence of other, usually similar, information
• proactive interference - old information interferes w/ new learning
  • w/ each successive list learned, recall for new lists decreases over time
• retroactive interference - new information causes forgetting of old information
  • retroactive interference prevented by reducing number of interfering events which is why it is best to study in evening

• for elderly, some types of memory remain strong while others fade
  • skill-based memory and recognition remain relatively constant in healthy aging adults
  • semantically meaningful material can be recalled easily (elderly have larger semantic network)
  • prospective memory remains mostly intact when event-based, but time-based prospective memory fades
    • remembering to perform a task at some point in future 
    • remembering to buy milk when walking past grocery store remains strong
    • remembering to take medication at 7AM fades quickly

• confabulation - formation of vivid but false memories
• misinformation effect 
  • when presented w/ written description of picture that does not match picture after having seen it, people will insist that written description correctly describes picture
  • when asked a question with leading language, people are more likely to respond the way the question may lead to
    • how fast were cars moving when they collided? vs. how fast were cars moving when they crashed?
    • people more likely to overstate severity of accident when responding to crash question
• source-monitoring error - remembering details of event but confusing context under which details were gained
  • confusion between semantic and episodic memory 
  • often manifests when person hears story of something that happened to someone else, but recalls story happening to themself

• as brain develops, neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli
  • infants have far more neurons than are necessary and brains of young children can reorganize drastically in response to injury, even entire hemisphere removal
  • remaining hemisphere changes to take over functions of both hemispheres

• as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered
• increases efficiency of our brain's ability to process information

• stimuli cause activation of neurons which release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft
• continue to stimulate activity until degradation, reuptake, or diffusion out of cleft
• before this can happen, neural activity forms memory trace that is thought to be cause of short-term memory
  • lack of repetition of stimulus leads to  fading of memory
  • repetition of stimulus causes neurons to become more efficient at releasing neurotransmitters and receptor sites at other side of synapse increase
• this process of long-term potentiation can manifest itself as the removal of magnesium ions from glutamate receptors or many other different things

• model for the way our brains process and react to information based on our knowledge of computers and artificial intelligence
• Pavio's dual-coding theory - both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information
  • word "dad" can recall some information while picture of "dad" can recall same information
  • builds redundancy and increases chance that information can be retrieved and used effectively when cued
• Key components of information processing model
  1. thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
  2. stimuli must be analyzed by brain to be useful in decision-making (cannot be automatic responses)
  3. decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems
  4. problem solving is dependent not only on person's cognitive level but also on context and complexity of problem

• Piaget believed that there are qualitative difference between the way children and adults think and divided lifespan into 4 stages
  • passage through each stage is continuous and sequential process in which completion of each stage prepares individual for next stage
  • theorized that infants learned through instinctual interaction w/ environment to learn organized behaviors known as schemata
  • believed new information was processed through adaptation through assimilation and accommodation
    • assimilation - classifying new information into existing schemata
    • accommodation - existing schemata modified to encompass new information
• sensorimotor stage
  • birth to two years
  • child learns to manipulate environment in order to meet physical needs
  • circular reactions begin
    • primary circular - repetition of body movement that originally occurred by chance (sucking thumb)
      • repeated as child finds it soothing
    • secondary circular - manipulation is focused on something outside body (repeatedly throwing toys)
      • repeated as child gets response from environment
  • key milestone: object permanence - understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view (why peek-a-boo stops working at certain age)
    • marks beginning of representational through - child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events
• preoperational stage
  • two to seven years
  • symbolic thinking - ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have imagination
  • egocentrism - inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
  • centration - tendency to focus on only one aspect of something or inability to understand conservation
    • child unable to tell that quantities are equal and will focus mainly on number of slices on plate than actual quantity
• concrete operational stage
  • seven to eleven years
  • children understand conservation and consider perspectives of others
  • children engage in logical thought as long as they are working w/ concrete object or information that is directly available
• formal operational stage
  • eleven years of age and up
  • ability to think logically about abstract ideas develops
  • marked by ability to reason about abstract concepts and problem solve

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• Reaction time increases steadily in early adulthood and time-based prospective memory declines
• fluid and crystallized intelligence decline w/ age
  • fluid intelligence (problem-solving skills) peaks in early adulthood
  • crystallized intelligence (use of learned skills and knowledge) peaks in middle adulthood
• Decline in intellectual abilities in adulthood can be understood in terms of ability to function in activities of daily living
  • higher level of education, more frequent performance of intellectual activities, socialization, and stimulating environment protect against intellectual decline
• Dementia - begins w/ impaired memory, but later progresses to impaired judgement and confusion as well as personality changes
  • most commonly caused by Alzheimer's but also found in vascular (multi-infarct) dementia
    • vascular dementia - caused by high blood pressure and repeated microscopic clot in brain
• delirium - rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes
  • can result from electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain

• process of problem solving
  • frame problem
  • generate potential solutions and test
  • solutions typically derived from mental set (tendency to approach similar problems in same way)
  • test solution, evaluate results, and consider other potential solutions
• therefore, inappropriate mental set can impede problem solving
• functional fixedness - inability to consider how to use object in nontraditional manner
  • impedes problem solving
  • demonstrated by matches, tacks, and candle scenario
    • people don't think of using matchbox to prevent dripping of wax

• trial-and-error - various solutions tried until one is found that seems to work
  • less sophisticated type of problem solving
  • only effective when there are relatively few possible solutions
• algorithm - formula or procedure for solving certain type of problem
  • can be mathematical or sets of instructions designed to automatically produce the desired solution
• deductive(top-down) processing - starts from set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given
  • logic puzzles require us to synthesize lists of logical rules to come up w/ one single possible solution to a problem
• inductive(bottom-up) processing - seeks to create a theory through generalizations
  • starts w/ specific instances and then draws a conclusion from them

• heuristics - simplified principles used to make decisions
  • colloquially called rules of thumb
  • can lead us astray many times but provide a more efficient method for problem solving
• availability heuristic - used when we try to decide how likely something is
  • based on how easily similar instances can be imagined
  • which job is more dangerous - logger or cop?
    • one might believe cop due to available knowledge of cop dramas, but the correct answer is logger

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• representativeness heuristic - involves categorizing items on basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of category
  • base rate fallacy - using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring numerical information
  • who done it - tattooed dude w/ meth teeth or old man in cardigan? 
    • it could be the old man, but our mental image of criminal draws us to meth-head

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• disconfirmation principle - evidence obtained from testing demonstrates that solution does not work
  • when potential solution fails, solution should be discarded, but this does not always happen
• confirmation bias - tendency to focus on information that fits and individual's beliefs while rejecting information that goes against those beliefs
  • contributes to overconfidence - tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, or beliefs as infallible
  • belief perseverance - inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to contrary
• confirmation bias, overconfidence, and belief perseverance cna seriously impede person's analysis of available evidence

• intuition - ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence
  • people may have beliefs that are not necessarily supported by evidence, but person "feels" to be correct
  • often developed by experience
  • recognition-primed decision model
    • doctors may make decisions w/out direct evidence to support those decisions
    • their brain is actually sorting through wide variety of information to match a pattern
    • over time, doctors gain extensive levels of experience that they are able to access w/out awareness

• emotion - subjective experience of person in certain situation
  • how a person feels influences how a person thinks and makes decisions
  • emotions that a person expects to feel from a particular decision are also involved in making that decision

• states that intelligence comes in more than one form and describes 7 different types of intelligence
  • linguistic
  • logical-mathematical
  • musical
  • visual-spatial
  • bodily-kinesthetic
  • interpersonal
  • intrapersonal
• argues that Western culture values linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences above the rest due to cultural factors and not any innate worth
• modern-day intelligence is commonly defined by the g (general intelligence) factor
  • based on observation that performance on different cognitive tasks is positively correlated leading to belief of some underlying variable
  • commonly measured w/ standardized testing as IQ (intelligence quotient)

• state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think
  • we can perceive, process, access information, and express information verbally
  • experience certain levels of physiological arousal as evidenced by heightened cortisol levels and EEG waves consistent w/ awake state
    • α waves - occur when we are awake but relaxed w/ eyes closed; somewhat lower frequency than β waves; mostly nonsynchronous
    • β waves - occur when we are alert/attending to mental task that requires concentration; highest frequency waves; nonsynchronous
• biological maintenance of this state
  • fibers from prefrontal cortex communicate w/ reticular formation to keep cortex awake and alert
  • brain injuries interrupting these connections result in coma

• sleep is a variety of levels of reduced consciousness
• split into ~5 stages and measured using EEG (electroencephalography) 
  • alpha/beta waves indicative of awake/alert behavior (β highest frequency/most alert)
  • Stage 1 - entered as soon as dozing off
    • appear as theta waves
    • EEG characterized by irregular waveforms w/ slower frequencies and higher voltages
  • Stage 2 - deeper sleep
    • appears as theta waves
    • EEG characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes
  • Stages 3 and 4 - deepest levels of sleep referred to as slow-wave sleep (SWS)
    • appear as delta waves 
    • EEG characterized by low-frequency, high-voltage waves
    • associated w/ cognitive recovery, declarative memory consolidation, and growth (increased release of growth hormone)
  • REM - arousal levels reach those of wakefulness and rapid eye movements can be observed
    • interspersed between cycles of NREM sleep
    • heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but individual is still asleep
    • dreaming most likely to occur in this state
    • associated w/ procedural memory consolidation

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• sleep cycle - single complete progression through sleep stages
  • makeup of cycle changes during the course of the night w/ progressively shorter periods of NREM sleep and progressively longer periods of REM 
• changes to sleep cycle
  • length of cycle increases over course of life
  • disrupted sleep or disordered work schedules can affect sleep cycles and cause many health problems
    • diminished memory, diminished cognitive performance, and negatively affected mood, problem solving, and motor skills

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• circadian rhythm - cycles that control the daily cycle of sleeping and waking
  • occur as approximately 24hr cycles naturally but are affected by external cues like light
  • sleepiness can be caused by melatonin release from pineal gland in response to lack of light reaching retina
  • cortisol release from adrenal cortex also responds to light
    • slow increase during early morning w/ increasing light causing increasing release of CRF from hypothalamus
      • CRF of hypothalamus activates ACTH release from anterior pituitary which causes cortisol release from adrenal cortex

• most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, but we mental experiences shifts to dreamlike state after Stage 2 sleep
  • REM dreams are longer and more vivid than NREM dreams
• activation-synthesis theory - dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry
  
  • activation mimics incoming sensory info and may consist of pieces of stored memories, desires, needs, and other experiences
  • cortex tries to piece together unrelated information resulting in bizarre but familiar dreams
• problem-solving dream theory - dreams are way to solve problems while sleeping
  • dreams untethered by rules of real world and allow us to interpret obstacles differently than during waking hours
• cognitive process dream theory - dreams are sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
  • rapid shifts in thinking when consciously awake are mirrored in dreams making them seem weird as we don't feel in control
• neurocognitive models of dreaming - seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective w/ measurable physiological changes

• Dyssomnias - disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep
  • insomnia - difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
    • most common
    • can be related to anxiety, depression, medications, or disruption of sleep cycles and circadian rhythms
  • narcolepsy - lack of voluntary control over onset of sleep
    • cataplexy - loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours
      • usually caused by emotional trigger
    • sleep paralysis - sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
    • hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations - hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
  • sleep apnea - inability to breathe during sleep
    • awaken often during night to breathe
    • can be obstructive (physical blockage of airway) or central (brain fails to send signals to diaphragm to breathe)
• parasomnias - abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep
  • night terrors - periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep
    • most common in children
    • they may thrash around and scream
    • sympathetic overdrive kicks in w/ high HR and rapid breathing
  • sleepwalking(somnambulism) - occurrence during SWS
    • people can eat, talk, have sex, or even drive in condition w/out recollection of event
    • most return to beds
• sleep deprivation - can result from as little as one night w/out sleep or multiple nights of poor-quality sleep
  • causes irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance, slowed reaction time, psychosis and even death in extensive, rare cases
  • when permitted to sleep after deprivation, REM rebound (earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep) is observed

• state in which person appears to be in control of normal functions but is in highly suggestible state
• begins w/ hypnotic induction - hypnotist seeks to relax subject and increase subject's level of concentration
  • hypnotist can then suggest perceptions or actions to hypnotized person
• successfully used in pain control, psychosocial therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation
• success requires willing personality and lack of skepticism on part of patient

• quieting of the mind for some purpose, whether spiritual, religious, or related to stress reduction
• can be used for counseling or psychotherapy as it produces sense of relaxation and relief from anxiety and worrying
• causes physiological changes such as decreased heart rate and blood pressure
• resembles stage 1 sleep w/ theta and alpha waves on EEG

• type of depressant
  • increases activity of GABA receptors (chloride channels that hyperpolarize neurons) 
  • generalized brain inhibition leading to diminished arousal at moderate doses
• symptoms
  • behavior may seem less inhibited due to depression of centers of brain responsible for inhibition
  • mild euphoria due to increased levels of dopamine
  • negative effects on cognitive functioning including alcohol myopia (inability to recognize consequences of actions)
• sociological factors of alcohol abuse
  • implicated in many automobile accidents, homicides, and hospital admissions
  • most widely abused drug
  • rates are higher among those of lower socioeconomic status, but these individuals tend to enter rehab faster
  • alcoholism runs in families and is especially common in children of individuals suffering from major depressive disorder
• consequences
  • cirrhosis and liver failure
  • pancreatic damage
  • gastric and duodenal ulcers
  • gastrointestinal cancers
  • brain disorders like Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

• types of depressants
• barbiturates - anxiety-reducing and sleep medications historically
  • amobarbital and phenobarbital
• benzodiazepines - modern replacemant for barbiturates as anxiety-reducing and sleep medication
  • alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, and clonazepam
• increase GABA activity causing sense of relaxation
• highly addictive and can easily lead to death when mixed with alcohol

• drugs that increase arousal of nervous system
• amphetamines
  • increase arousal through increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at synapse and decreasing reuptake
  • causes reduction in appetite, increased arousal, and decreased need for sleep
  • increases heart rate and blood pressure
  • induces euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia
  • can result in stroke or brain damage w/ prolonged usage
  • highly addictive leading to withdrawal after discontinuation (depression, fatigue, and irritability)
• cocaine - a semi-synthetic derived from coca plant
  • decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
  • very similar intoxication and withdrawal effects to amphetamines
  • has additional properties of anesthetic and causes vasoconstriction
  • can cause heart attacks and stroke
  • Crack is a smokable form of cocaine w/ potent and quick effects - even more addictive
• MDMA(3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine) /ecstasy
  • amphetamine w/ very hallucinogenic properties
  • causes increased heart rate and blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia
  • causes feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, and an overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness

• opiates and opioids are inspired by opium (highly abusable anesthetic compound of poppy plant)
• opiates - naturally occurring molecules found in opium poppies
  • include morphine and codeine
• opioids - semisynthetic derivatives of compounds found in opium poppies
  • include oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin
• function by binding to opioid receptors in the peripheral and central nervous systems causing decreased reaction to pain and euphoria
• overdose can easily lead to death by respiratory suppression (brain stops sending signals to breathe)
• Heroin (diacetylmorphine)
  • created as substitute for morphine
  • after being smoked or injected, body rapidly metabolizes heroin to morphine
  • treatment for opioid dependence may utilize methadone (long-acting opioid w/ lower risk of overdose)

• include lysergic acid diethylamide(LSD), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms
• involve complex interactions between various neurotransmitters, especially serotonin
• cause distortion of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, and introspection 
• increase heart rate and blood pressure, dilate pupils, increase sweating, and increase body temperature

• heavily related to mesolimbic reward pathway
  • one of four main dopaminergic pathways in brain
  • include nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, and medial forebrain bundle (connection between them)
  • normally involved in motivation and emotional response
  • its activation also accounts for positive reinforcement of substance abuse
  • activated by all substances that produce psychological dependence as well as gambling and falling in love

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• selective attention - focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
  • acts as filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems
  • if stimulus is attended to, it passes through filter and is analyzed further
  • originally viewed as all-or-nothing response, but this is not true
    • cocktail party phenomenon
  • more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in background
• divided attention - ability to perform multiple tasks at same time
  • while most new or complex tasks require undivided attention, familiar or routine actions can be performed automatically
  • controlled(effortful) processing - requires undivided attention
  • automatic processing permits brain to focus on other tasks
    • does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change
    • may contribute to high incidence of car accidents resulting from distracted driving

• Phonology - actual sound of language
  • ~40 phonemes in English, but there are many more in other languages
  • children have to learn to produce and recognize sounds of language separating them from environmental and other non-language noises
  • categorical perception - ability to make distinction as to when subtle differences between speech sounds represent a change in meaning
    • constancy - we perceive certain characteristics of stimuli as constant despite differences in environment
• morphology - structure of words
  • many words are composed of multiple building blocks called morphemes each of which connotes a particular meaning
  • re- means to do again; -ed means action happened in past
• semantics - association of meaning w/ word
  
  • child must learn that certain combinations of phonemes represent physical objects or events or that words may refer to entire categories or specific members of categories
• syntax - how words are put together to form sentences
  • child must notice effects of word order on meaning
• pragmatics - dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
  • manner in which we speak may differ depending on audience and our relationship to audience
  • prosody - rhythm, cadence, and inflection of voice that affects pragmatics

• babbling - important precursor to language in which children (even deaf) spontaneously begin to babble during first year
  • babbling reaches its highest frequency around 9-12 months 
  • deaf children cease babbling soon after it begins
• 18 months - explosion of language through words, gestures, and inflections, but no sentences
  • gestures, inflection, and context are essential for parent or caregiver to identify meaning as child is not yet able to form sentences
• 18-20 months - children begin to combine words
  • context and gesture become less important as ability to assemble sentences develops
• 2-3 years - children speak longer sentences, vocabulary grows, and grammatical errors increase as child internalizes complex rules of grammar
  • errors of growth - child applies grammatical rule (often morpheme) in a situation that doesn't apply
  • parents less likely to correct these errors than errors in word choice
• language is usually mastered by age 5

• credited to Noam Chomsky
• advocates for existence of some innate capacity for language
• transformational grammar - syntactic transformations, or changes in word order that retain same meaning
  • children learn to make such transformations effortlessly at early age, so this ability must be innate
• language acquisition device (LAD) - theoretical pathway in brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules, so effortlessly and quickly
• critical period for language acquisition - idea that if no language exposure occurs between two years and puberty, later training will be largely ineffective
  • has been evidenced, but it has been reformed more as a sensitive period
    
    • time when environmental input has maximal effect on development of an ability

• explained language acquisition in terms of operant conditioning
• young babies capable of distinguishing between phonemes of all human languages but show strong preference for phonemes spoken by parents around 6 months
  • learning theory attributes this to reinforcement
    • caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like language spoken by parents
    • infant perceives that certain sounds have little value and are not reinforced leading to loss
• theory does not entirely explain why there is explosion of vocabulary during early childhood

• focuses on interplay between biological and social processes
• language acquisition is driven by child's desire to communicate and behave in social manner, such as interacting w/ caretakers and other children
• allows for role of brain development in acquisition of language
  • as foundation for language develops and children are exposed to language, brain groups sounds and meanings together
  • as child interacts w/ others, certain brain circuits are reinforced while others are de-emphasized leading to atrophy of de-emphasized circuits

• our perception of reality is determined by the content of language
  • language affects the way that we think rather than the other way around
  • Inuit language has many words for snow, so they are better at discriminating between subtleties between different types of snow
• controversial, but most linguists agree that language can influence how we think to some degree

• both major language centers of the brain are located in dominant (typically left) hemisphere
• Broca's area - located in inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe
  • controls motor function of speech through connections to motor cortex
  • Broca's (expressive) aphasia 
    • damage to Broca's area results in reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language despite being able to comprehend language 
    • patients typically frustrated as they are stuck w/ sensation of having every word on tip of tongue
• Wernicke's area - located in superior temporal gyrus of temporal lobe
  • responsible for comprehension of language
  • Wernicke's (receptive) aphasia
    • damage to wernicke's area results in reduced or absent abilities of language comprehension despite motor capabilities of speech
    • patients typically speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combinations devoid of meaning
    • often believe they are speaking and understanding perfectly well even though people around them have no idea what they are saying
• Wernicke's and Broca's are connected by arcuate fasciculus -
  • bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production
  • conduction aphasia
    • if arcuate fasciculus is cut, speech production and comprehension are intact, but patients are unable to repeat something that has been said as the connection between Wernicke's and Broca's has been cut
    • super rare

• motivation - purpose/driving force behind our actions
  • can be categorized based on what drives people to act - external forces or internal forces
• extrinsic motivation - motivation driven by external forces coming from outside oneself
  • include rewards for showing desired behavior or avoiding punishment if desired behavior is not achieved
    • ex: working hard at job may earn you raise (reward) while doing a bad job may result in unemployment (punishment)
  • competition is strong form of external motivation as person is incentivized to beat others and not only to perform for oneself (desire comes from observations of others, not oneself)
• intrinsic motivation - motivation that comes from w/in oneself
  • can be driven by interest/pure enjoyment derived from task
    • student studying for exam for enjoyment of material - intrinsic
    • student studying to get high grade - extrinsic

• instincts - innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli
  • focus of early attempts to understand basis of motivation
• instinct theory - people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts
  • one of the first theories to describe motivation
  • derived from Darwin's theory of evolution
  • William James (proponent of this theory) believed humans driven by many instincts, possibly more than any other animal
    • claimed that human actions derived from 20 physical instincts
    • believed that many of these instincts were in direct conflict with one another and could be overridden by experience

• arousal - psychological and physiological state of begin awake and reactive to stimuli
• arousal theory - people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal - seeking to increase arousal when it falls or decrease when it rises
  • Yerkes-Dodson law - postulates a U-shaped function between level of arousal and performance - performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal

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Drive Reduction Theory

• drives - internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals
  • thought to originate w/in individual w/out requiring any external factors to motivate behavior
  • help humans survive by creating uncomfortable state, ensuring motivation to eliminate state or relieve internal tension created by unmet needs
  • primary drives - motivates us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis (need for food, water, warmth, etc.)
  • secondary drives - additional drives not directly related to biological processes
    • stem from learning
    • include certain emotions (desire for nurturing, love, achievement, and aggression)
• drive reduction theory - explains that motivation is based on goal of eliminating uncomfortable states
  • certain physiological conditions result in negative internal environment which drives motivation and seeks homeostasis to reduce uncomfortable internal state

• Maslow observed that certain needs yield greater influence on motivation and established a hierarchy to explain these relationships
  • most primitive, essential, important needs are at base
    • physiological needs are at bottom
    • safety/security needs
    • love and belonging needs
    • self-esteem needs
    • self-actualization needs are at top - need to realize one's fullest potential
  • if lowest level is not met, motivation to meet those needs will become priority and other needs will be met later

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• emphasizes role of three universal needs 
  • autonomy - need to be in control of one's actions and ideas
  • competence - need to complete and excel at difficult tasks
  • relatedness - need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships
• these three needs must be met in order to develop healthy relationships w/ oneself and others

• explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments
  
  • more of a behaviorist model (operant conditioning)

• states that amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is result of both individual's expectation of success in reaching goal and degree to which they value succeeding at goal

• motivations are destructive if they result in harm to oneself
  • motivation for continual self-destructive behaviors (mostly drug addiction) can be explained by opponent-process theory
• opponent-process theory - explains that when drug is taken repeatedly, body will attempt to counteract effect of drug by changing physiology
  • changes in physiology last longer than drug resulting in withdrawal symptoms that are exactly opposite the effects of the drug
  • can create physical dependency on drug
  • also explains tolerance - decrease in perceived drug effect over time
  • despite harm, body has physiological motivation to continue drug usage due to physiological adaptations

• humans motivated to sexual behavior physiologically based on secretion of sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone, and androgens)
  • strong correlation between hormone concentration and sexual desire
• smell also affects sexual behaviors
  • certain odors increase sexual desire and activity (like pheromones in animals)
• pleasure and interpretation of pleasure also influence sexual desire
  • factor that is highly influenced by culture
  • cognition plays a role
    • measured physiological arousal based on watching sexually explicit videos differed little between sexes, but their verbal responses were vastly different
  • culture and society influence what sexual behavior is appropriate, at what age it is appropriate, and with whom
    • affect desire for sexual interaction or lack thereof

• emotion - natural instinctive state of mind derived from one's circumstances, mood, or relationship w/ others
• physiological response
  • when feeling is first experienced, arousal is stimulated by ANS
  • changes in heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, and blood pressure may result
  • some emotions like fear, aggression, or embarrassment are associated w/ pronounced physiological changes while others are not
• behavioral response
  • includes facial expressions and body language
  • how we display emotions
• cognitive response
  • subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced
  • determination of one's emotion is largely based on memories of past experiences and perception of cause of emotion

• Darwin theorized that emotions were result of evolution and that they were thusly universal across cultures
  • all humans developed same sets of facial muscles for expression when communicating emotion
  • Ekman found seven basic emotions associated w/ consistent facial expressions across all cultures
  • However, emotions are likely molded by culture far more than Darwin or Ekman believed as cultural dissimilarities exist
    • differences in emotional experience, varying reactions to similar events, different perception of emotion by others in society, and behavior exhibited in response to emotion
• evolutionary perspective on emotion states that everything we do, think, and feel is based on specialized functional programs designed for any problem we encounter that are coordinated to produce a cohesive response
  • emotions thought to develop at different evolutionary time points
  • emotions thought to be evolutionary adaptations to situations encountered over evolutionary history of human species that guide sensory processing, physiological response, and behavior

• stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to secondary response in which emotion is labeled
  • when peripheral organs receive information and respond, that response is then labeled as emotion by brain
  • emotion not processed w/out feedback from peripheral organs
  • individuals who cannot mount sympathetic response (spinal cord injuries) should experience lower levels of emotion

NOT TRUE!!!

• states that cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously and result in behavioral component of emotion or action
  • when exposed to stimulus, sensory information is received and sent to both cortex and sympathetic nervous system simultaneously by thalamus
  • visual stimuli pass through thalamus and rough information is sent straight to amygdala which causes SNS activation; visual cortex receives this information simultaneously and can either strengthen or quell fear response once it has identified stimulus
• fails to explain vagus nerve conveying information from peripheral organ back to central nervous system

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• states that both arousal and labeling of arousal based on environment must occur for emotion to be experienced
  • uniquely refers to cognitive appraisal in emotion
    • to feel emotion, one must consciously analyze environment in relation to nervous system arousal
  • epinephrine injection experiment
    • group told that injection was placebo - presence of unexpected arousal plus environment that encourages particular emotion is sufficient to create emotion
    • group told that injection was real - when physiological arousal expected, internal feelings are attributed to drug as side effects, not emotions

• limbic system - made up of the amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, fornix, septal nuclei, and parts of cerebral cortex
  • large role in motivation and emotion
• amygdala - signals to cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotions
  • processes environment, detects external cues, and learns from surroundings in order to produce emotion
  • associated w/ fear and plays major role in human emotion through interpretation of facial expressions
• thalamus - preliminary sensory processing station that routes information to cortex and other appropriate areas of brain
• hypothalamus - synthesizes and releases variety of neurotransmitters
  • serves many homeostatic functions and modulates emotion
  • by controlling neurotransmitters that affect mood and arousal, hypothalamus largely controls emotional state
• hippocampus - primarily functions in creation of long-term memories
  • functions w/ amygdala and hypothalamus in retrieval of and storage of emotional memories
  • aids in creating context for stimuli to lead to emotional experience
  • emotional experiences are stored in both implicit (unconscious emotional memory) and explicit (episodic memories about emotions) forms in amygdala and hippocampus, respectively
    • these emotions may be retrieved when experiencing similar event later on
    • PTSD to illustrate: story is explicit memory while sensations of unease and anxiety are implicit memory
• interpretation of facial expressions primarily controlled by temporal lobe w/ input from occipital lobe
  • lateralized function that favors nondominant hemisphere (right hemisphere)
  • gender differences also exist
• prefrontal cortex - associated w/ planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality, and making decisions
  • receives arousal input from brainstem to coordinate arousal and cognitive states
  • left prefrontal deals w/ positive emotions while right deals w/ negative emotions
  • dorsal - attention and cognition
  • ventral - connects w/ regions of brain responsible for experiencing emotion
    • ventromedial - plays substantial role in decision-making and controlling emotional responses from amygdala
• ANS - responsible for specific physiological reactions associated w/ specific emotions
  • can control skin temp., heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure in response to emotional experience

• subjective evaluation of situation that induces stress that consists of two stages
  • primary appraisal(stage 1)
    • initial evaluation of environment and associated threat
    • can be identified as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful
    • if threat is determined, then stage 2 begins
  • secondary appraisal(stage 2)
    • directed at evaluating whether organism can cope w/ stress
    • involves evaluation of:
      • harm - damage caused by event
      • threat - potential for future damage
      • challenge - potential to overcome event
  • some situations require ongoing monitoring through reappraisal (perception of being followed)

• stressor - biological element, external condition, or event that leads to stress response
  • classified as either causing distress or eustress
  • distress - occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors
  • eustress - occurs when experiencing positive conditions
    • graduation college, achieving high score on test, etc.
  • stress can really be caused by any event requiring change or adaptation, negative or positive
• types of psychological stress
  • pressure - experienced when expectations or demands are put in place from external sources
  • control - ability to control surroundings typically reduces stress levels
  • predictability - having experiences that are unpredictable or not knowing when things are going to happen can cause stress
    • firefighters and policemen have higher stress levels as they cannot predict daily scenarios
  • frustration - occurs when attaining a goal or need is prevented
  • conflict - arise from need to make a choice
    • approach-approach - need to choose between two desirable options
    • avoidance-avoidance - need to choose between two undesirable options
    • approach-avoidance - deals w/ only choice, goal, or event in which outcome could have both positive and negative elements

• general adaptation syndrome - sequence of physiological responses to stress that come in three stages
  • alarm - initial reaction to stressor and activation of sympathetic nervous system
    • hypothalamus stimulates ACTH secretion from anterior pituitary which causes release of cortisol from adrenal cortex
      • maintenance of blood sugar
    • hypothalamus activates adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine to activate SNS
  • resistance - next stage in which continuous release of hormones allows SNS to remain engaged to fight stressor
  • exhaustion - final stage when body can no longer maintain elevated response w/ SNS activity
    • individuals become more susceptible to illnesses and medical conditions, organ systems begins to deteriorate, and even death can result

• describes person's appraisal of themself on scales of masculinity and femininity
  • these concepts were long thought to be two extremes on a continuum, but it is more likely that they are two separate dimensions
    • androgyny - state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine
    • undifferentiated - those who achieve low scores on both masculinity and femininity scales
• theory of gender schema - holds that key components of gender identity are transmitted through cultural and societal means
• gender identity is not the same thing as biological sex or sexual orientation

• ethnic identity - one's ethnic group in which members typically share common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language
  • largely and identity into which one is born
• nationality - result of shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols such as a country's flag
  • based on political borders
• symbols play important roles in both ethnic and national identities
  • american nationality: apple pie and baseball
  • jewish ethnicity: menorah and dreidel

• it is believed that our identities are organized according to hierarchy of salience such that we let situation dictate which identity holds most important at a given moment
  • male and female college students in same-sex groups less likely to list gender in self-descriptions
  • the more salient the identity, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identity
    • salience is based on 
      • amount of work we have invested into identity
      • rewards and gratification associated w/ identity
      • the amount of self-esteem we have associated w/ identity

• maintains that each of us has three selves
  • actual self - made up of our self-concept; way we see ourselves as we currently are
  • ideal self - person we would like to be
  • ought self - our representation of the way others think we should be
  • the closer these three selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem (self-worth)
• self-efficacy - our belief in our ability to succeed
  • can vary by activity for individuals
  • more motivated to pursue tasks in which our self-efficacy is high
  • overconfidence - state in which self-efficacy is too high and leading us to take on tasks for which we are not ready
    • leads to frustration, humiliation, and/or personal injury
  • learned helplessness
    • one possible model of clinical depression
    • when self-efficacy is depressed past point of recovery, we are unable to take control and require intervention
    • in shock experiment w/ dogs, dogs did not change expectations about control over electrical shocks until they were forcibly removed from their cages
  • locus of control - the way we characterize influences in our lives
    • people w/ internal locus of control view themselves controlling their own fate
    • people w/ external locus of control feel that events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences
• happiest people have high self-esteem, view themselves as effective people, feel that they are in control of their fate, and see themselves as living up to their own expectations

• Freud believed that libidinal energy and drive to relieve libidinal tension were underlying forces that accounted for human psychological processes
  • also believed that libido is present at birth, not beginning at puberty
• Freud believed in 5 stages of psychosocial development that represent conflicts between social demands and libidinal drive associated w/ different zones of the body
  • fixation - when child is overindulged or overly frustrated leading them to be stuck in stage and develop personality into adulthood reflective of that stage
    • seen as functional mental disorder known as neurosis
  • human who passes through all stages develops healthy, heterosexual relationships; if sexual traumas are not resolved, homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism
• 5 stages 
  • oral stage
    • 0-1 yr
    • libido centered on mouth and gratification obtained primarily through putting objects in mouth, biting, & sucking
    • orally fixated adult exhibits excessive dependency
  • anal stage
    • 1-3 yrs
    • libido centered on anus and gratification gained through elimination and retention of waste 
    • toilet training occurs
    • anally fixated adults exhibit excessive orderliness or sloppiness
  • phallic/Oedipal stage
    • 3-5 yrs
    • resolution of the oedipal conflict and electra conflict
      • male children envy father's intimate relationship w/ mother and fear castration at father's hand
      • child wishes to eliminate father and possess mother but is guilty about it
      • w/ electra conflict females are expected to exhibit less stereotypically female behavior and be less morally developed
    • child de-eroticizes/sublimates libidinal energy
      • expressed through collection of objects or focusing on schoolwork
  • latency
    • occurs after full sublimation of libido and lasts until puberty
  • genital stage
    • puberty to adulthood
    • libido fixates on genitals

• unlike freud's theory, child can fail at resolving central conflict for specific stage but still move on to the next stage (just don't acquire developmental traits that come w/ particular stage)
• successful resolution of stage marked by answering essential existential question to imbue an individual w/ skills and traits that are carried through subsequent stages
• broken down into 8 conflicts/stages
  • trust vs. mistrust
    • 0-1 yr
    • resolved: child will come to trust environment as well as self
    • unresolved: child will be suspicious of world
  • autonomy vs. shame and doubt
    • 1-3 yrs
    • resolved: feeling able to exert control over the world and exercise choice as well as self-restraint
    • unresolved: sense of doubt and persistent external locus of control
  • initiative vs. guilt
    • 3-6 yrs
    • resolved: sense of purpose, ability to initiate activities, and ability to enjoy accomplishment
    • unresolved: overcome by fear of punishment and unduly restrict oneself or overcompensate by showing off
  • industry vs. inferiority
    • 6-12 yrs
    • resolved: child will feel competent, be able to exercise abilities and intelligence, and be able to affect world in way that child desires
    • unresolved: sense of inadequacy, sense of inability to act competently, and low self-esteem
  • identity vs. role of confusion
    • 12-20 yrs
    • physiological revolution
    • resolved: fidelity, ability to see oneself as unique and integrated w/ sustained loyalties
    • unresolved: confusion about identity and amorphous personality that shifts from day to day 
  • intimacy vs. isolation
    • 20-40 yrs
    • resolved: love, ability to have intimate relationships, and ability to commit oneself to another and one's own goals
    • unresolved: avoidance of commitment, alienation, distancing of oneself from others and one's ideals, and withdraw or capability of only superficial relationships
  • generativity vs. stagnation
    • 40-65 yrs
    • resolved: individual capable of being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society
    • unresolved: sense of stagnation, self-indulgence, boredom, and self-centered behavior w/ lack of concern for others
  • integrity vs. despair
    • above 65 yrs
    • resolved: wisdom and readiness to face death
      • wisdom - detached concern w/ life and assurance of meaning of life, dignity, and acceptance of worthwhile life 
    • unresolved: feelings of bitterness about one's life, feeling that life has been worthless, and fear of death

• theory that focuses not on resolving conflicts or urges but on development of moral thinking
• organized into six distinct stages ranging from concrete to abstract and grouped these into 3 phases
• preconventional morality (preadolescence)
  • places emphasis on consequences of moral choice
  • stage 1: obedience
    • concerned w/ avoiding punishment
  • stage 2: self-interest
    • about gaining rewards
    • often called instrumental relativist stage as it is based on concepts of reciprocity and sharing
• conventional morality (adolescence to adulthood)
  • based on understanding and accepting social rules
  • Stage 3: Conformity
    • emphasis on "good boy, good girl" orientation in which person seeks approval of others
  • Stage 4: Law and Order
    • maintains social order in highest regard
• postconventional morality (adulthood, if at all)
  • level of reasoning that not everyone is capable of and is based on social mores which may conflict w/ laws
  • Stage 5: Social Contract
    
    • view moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights
  • Stage 6: Universal Human Ethics
    • reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles
• Kohlberg viewed stages as progression in which each stage was adopted and abandoned for next as individual progresses

• engine driving cognitive development is child's internalization of various aspects of culture (rules, symbols, language, etc.)
  • as child internalizes these various interpersonal and cultural rules, their cognitive activity develops accordingly
• zone of proximal development
  • skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed, but are in process of development
  • gaining these skills requires help of "more knowledgeable other" 

• young children observe and encode behaviors they see in others and may later imitate these behaviors
  • children more likely to imitate behaviors performed by someone who is like them
• role-taking
  • children might experiment w/ other identities by taking on roles of others
  • playing house or school
  • good practice for later in life when child begins to understand perspectives and roles of others
• theory of mind
  • ability to sense how another's mind works
  • once ability has developed, we begin to recognize and react to how others think
• looking-glass self
  • our reactions to how others perceive us can be varied - maintaining, modifying, downplaying or accentuating different aspects of personality
  • relies on others reflecting our selves back to ourselves
• reference group
  • our self-concept often depends on whom we are comparing ourselves to

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

(id, ego, superego)

• id
  • consists of all basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce
  • functions according to pleasure principle
    • aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension
  • primary process - id's response to frustration
    • obtain satisfaction now, not later
  • wish fulfillment 
    • mental imagery (daydreaming, fantasy, etc.) fulfills this need for satisfaction
    • cannot effectively reduce tension on permanent basis
• ego
  • operates according to reality principle
    • takes objective reality into account as it guides or inhibits activity of id and id's pleasure principle
    • aim is to postpone pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained (only does this meet demands of objective reality)
  • secondary process - guidance of ego
  • also moderates desires of superego
• mutual give and take of ego and reality promotes growth of perception, memory, problem solving, thinking, and reality testing
• superego 
  • personality's perfectionist, judging our actions and responding w/ pride at our accomplishments and guilt at failures
  • divided into two subdivisions that reflect morals taught by caregivers
    • conscience - collection of improper actions for which child is punished
    • ego-ideal - collection of proper actions for which child is rewarded
• access to id, ego, and superego fall into three categories
  • conscious - thoughts to which we have conscious access
  • preconscious - thoughts we aren't currently aware of
  • unconscious(subconscious) - thoughts that have been repressed
• Freud also believed that instinct (innate psychological representation of biological need) influenced behavior
  • life instincts - Eros; promote individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, and sex
  • death instincts - Thanatos; represent unconscious wish for death and destruction

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• ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by clash of id and superego
  • common characteristics
    
    • deny, falsify, or distort reality
    • operate unconsciously
  • repression - ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to unconscious; unconscious forgetting
  • suppression - more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting
  • regression - reversion to earlier developmental state
  • reaction formation - suppression of urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites; unrequited obsession can be expressed as hatred
  • projection - attributing undesired feelings to others
    • hate my parents → my parents hate me
    • Rorschach inkblot and thematic perception tests use this mechanism to gain insight into patient's mind
  • rationalization - justification of behaviors in manner that is acceptable to self and society
  • displacement - transference of undesired urge from one person or object to another
    • somebody angry at boss may snap at spouse, because they can't do it to boss
  • sublimation - transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors

• libido as psychic energy in general, not just psychic energy rooted in sexuality
• identifies ego as conscious mind and unconscious as personal unconscious and collective unconscious
  • personal unconscious - similar to Freud's notion of unconscious; repressed thoughts
  • collective unconscious - powerful system shared among all humans and considered to be residue of experiences of early ancestors
• archetypes - building blocks of collective unconscious; images of common experiences
  • invariably carry emotional element
  •  persona - likened to mask we wear in public and is part of personality we present to world
    • adaptive to our social interactions
  • anima/animus - sex-inappropriate qualities; feminine behavior in males and masculine behavior in females
  • shadow - responsible for appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and action in consciousness
  • self - point of intersection between collective unconscious, personal unconscious, and conscious mind
    • strives for unity
• dichotomies of personality
  • extraversion vs. introversion
    • orientation toward external world vs. orientation toward internal world
  • sensing vs. intuiting
    • obtaining objective information about world vs. working with information abstractly
  • thinking vs. feeling
    • using logic and reason vs. using value system or personal beliefs
  • most individuals have some of both parts of dichotomy, but one tends to dominate
  • laid groundwork for Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI)

• classic personality test based on the work of Carl Jung, especially his dichotomies
  • extraversion v. intraversion
  • sensing v. intuiting
  • thinking v. feeling
  • judging v. perceiving - 4th dichotomy not mentioned by Jung
    • preferring orderliness v. preferring spontaneity
• each dichotomy is listed as specific personality type

**don't memorize these!!

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• theory created by Adler sparked by controversial findings of Freud
• inferiority complex - individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially
  • striving for superiority drives personality
    • striving enhances personality when it is oriented toward benefiting society, but yields disorder when selfish
• creative self - force by which each individual shapes uniqueness and establishes personality
  • style of life - describes person's unique way of achieving superiority
    • manifestation of creative self
    • family environment is crucial to shaping this
• fictional finalism - notion that individual is motivated more by expectations of future than by past experiences
  • human goals are based on subjective or fictional estimate of life's value rather than objective data from past

• inspired by Freud's controversial findings
• individuals w/ neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten neurotic needs
  • each need directed toward making life and interactions bearable
  • examples
    • need for affection and approval
    • need to exploit others
    • need for self-sufficiency and independence
  • healthy people have neurotic needs to some degree, but they don't become problematic unless they fit at least 1 of 4 criteria
    • disproportionate in intensity
    • indiscriminate in application
    • partially disregard reality
    • have tendency to provoke intense anxiety
• child's early perception of self is important and stems from child's relationship w/ his or her parents
  • basic anxiety - inadequate parenting causes vulnerability and helplessness
  • basic hostility - neglect and rejection by parents causes anger
  • strategies to overcome include
    • moving toward people to obtain goodwill of people who provide security
    • moving against people or fighting them to obtain upper hand
    • moving away or withdrawing from people
  • healthy people use all three strategies depending on situation, but highly threatened child will use one strategy rigidly and exclusively and carry it to adulthood

• another psychoanalytic theory inspired by controversial findings of Freud
• object - representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy
• these objects persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others including social bonds we create and predictions of others' behavior

Perspectives of Various Theories of Personality

(humanist, psychoanalytic, etc.) 

• personality - describes set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of individual across time and different locations
• psychoanalytic/psychodynamic theories 
  • share assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate overt actions of individuals and determine personality
  • focus mostly on "sick" individuals and troubling urges
  • include Freud, Jung, Horney, Adler, and object relations theory
• humanistic theories
  • focus on value of individuals 
  • take a more person-centered approach describing those ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization
  • include Gestalt, Lewin, Maslow, Kelly, and Rogers
• type and trait theories
  • type - attempt to create taxonomy of personality types
  • traite - prefer to describe individual personalities as sum of person's characteristic behaviors
• behaviorist theory
  • based heavily on concepts of operant conditioning
• social cognitive
  • focuses not just on how environment influences behavior, but also how we interact w/ environment
• biological 
  • personality can be explained as result of genetic expression in brain

• a therapy associated w/ humanistic perspectives on personality
• practitioners tend to take holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing them to individual behaviors or drives
• personality is result of conscious feeling we have of ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals

• puts little stock in constraints on personalities such as fixed traits, habits, or structures like id, ego, or superego
• focuses on situations in the present rather than an individual's past or future
• field - one's current state of mind
  • sum of forces/influences on individual at that time
  • forces are either assisting in our attainment of goals or blocking the path to them
• like other humanistic perspectives, focuses on how individual reaches self-actualization

• maslow (hierarchy of needs guy) focused on the personalities of self-actualizers (people who accomplish great deal of things)
• identified several characteristics common throughout group of self-actualizers
  • nonhostile sense of humor
  • originality
  • creativity
  • spontaneity
  • need for some privacy
• self-actualized people more likely than others to have peak experiences
  • profound and deeply moving experiences in person's life that have important and lasting effects on individual

• used himself as model to theorize about human nature and set aside traditional concepts of motivation, unconscious emotion, and reinforcement
• personal construct psychology
  • individual can be thought of as scientist who devises and tests predictions about behavior of significant people in their life
  • individual constructs scheme of anticipation of what others will do based on knowledge, perception, and relationships
  • anxious person is not victim of inner conflicts, etc., but is actually just having difficulty constructing and understanding variable in environment
• psychotherapy should be process of insight whereby individual acquires new constructs that will allow them to successfully predict troublesome events
  • individual will then be able to integrate these new constructs into already existing ones

• client-centered, person-centered, nondirective therapy
  • people have freedom to control their own behavior and are not slaves to unconscious or subjects of faulty learning
  • therapist should help client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine his or her own destiny
• created concepts of real and ideal self and therapeutic techniques that aimed to help clients reconcile differences between various selves
• unconditional positive regard
  • therapeutic technique where therapist accepts client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote positive therapeutic environment

• type theories - attempt to create taxonomy of personality types
• personality types based on body types called somatotypes
  
  • all short, stocky people are jolly, and all tall people high-strung
• type A and B
• Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI)

• trait theory - describes individual personality as sum of person's characteristic behaviors
  • uses cluster of behaviors to describe individual
• PEN model
  • Psychoticism - measure of nonconformity or social deviance
  • Extraversion - measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation
  • Neuroticism - measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations
  • turned into the Big Five which focuses on
    • openness
    • conscientiousness
    • extraversion
    • agreeableness
    • neuroticism
• Allport's three basic types of traits
  • cardinal - traits around which person organizes his or her life
    • not everyone has these, but everyone must have central and secondary traits
  • central - traits that represent major characteristics of personality that are easy to infer
    • honesty or charisma are examples
  • secondary - traits that are more limited in occurrence; only appear in close groups or specific social situations
  • concept of functional anatomy
    • behavior continues despite satisfaction f drive that originally created behavior
    • hunter originally hunted for food but now hunts to hunt
• McClelland's need for achievement (N-Ach)
  • people highly rated as N-Ach tend to be concerned w/ achievement and have pride in accomplishments
    • avoid high risks and low risks
    • set realistic goals and stop striving toward goal if success is unlikely 

• based heavily on concepts of operant conditioning
• personality simply a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time
  • therapy should focus on learning skills and changing behaviors through operant conditioning
  • token economics may be used in inpatient therapeutics to reinforce positive behavior w/ tokens that get patients some reinforcers

• focuses not just how environment influences behavior, but also on how we interact w/ that environment
• reciprocal determinism
  •  idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact to determine our actions in a given situation
  • people choose environments that suit their personalities, and their personalities determine how well the will feel about and react to events in environments
• locus of control
  • some people feel more in control of their environment than others
• best predictor of future behavior is past behavior in similar situations

• personality can be explained as result of genetic expression in brain
• closely linked w/ trait perspective as biological theorists believe that many traits can be shown to result from genes or differences in brain anatomy

• biomedical - focuses on symptom reduction of psychological disorders
  • assumes disorder has roots in biomedical disturbances that should be approached w/ biomedical treatments (medications)
  • narrower view than other approaches as it fails to account for many other sources involved w/ these disorders
• biopsychosocial - assumes that there are biological, psychological, and social components to psychological disorders
  • much broader view of these disorders
  • considers both genetic factors, psychological factors, and social environment involved in manifesting as a disorder like depression
  • focuses on various therapy techniques to overcome these disorders 
    • direct therapy - treatment that acts directly on individual (medication or periodical visits w/ therapist)
    • indirect therapy - aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of individual

• psychotic disorder - must suffer from at least one of following symptoms:
  • delusions
  • hallucinations
  • disorganized thought
  • catatonia
  • negative symptoms
• schizophrenic must show continuous signs of any of the symptoms of a psychotic disorder including a positive symptom (delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech) for at least 6 months
• symptoms
  • positive symptoms - added to normal behavior
    • delusions - false beliefs 
      • " of reference - common elements in environment directed toward them
      • " of persecution - deliberately being plotted against
      • " of grandeur - remarkable in some significant way
      • thought broadcasting - their thoughts are perceived by outside world
      • thought insertion - thoughts aren't their own
    • hallucinations - perceptions not due to external stimuli that seem real (auditory_{[most common]}, visual, or tactile)
    • disorganized thought
      • exhibited as speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another
      • word salad - speech so disorganized that it has no structure
      • neologisms - invention of new words
    • disorganized behavior - inability to carry out activities of daily living
    • catatonic behavior - certain motor behaviors characteristic of people w/ schizophrenia
      • spontaneous movement greatly reduced or maintaining rigid posture
      • useless and bizarre movements
      • echolalia - repeating others' words
      • echopraxia - imitating others' actions
  • negative symptoms - absence of normal or desired behavior
    • disturbance of affect 
      • blunting - severe reduction in intensity of affect expression
      • flat affect - virtually no signs of emotional expression
      • inappropriate affect - affect clearly discordant w/ individual's speech
    • avolition - decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions
• prodromal phase - before diagnosis, patients often go through phase of poor adjustment which includes symptoms like:
  • clear evidence of deterioration
  • social withdrawal
  • role functioning impairment
  • peculiar behavior
  • inappropriate affect
  • unusual experiences
• slow development of schizophrenia = especially poor prognosis
• risk factors and causes
  
  • most potential causes are genetic, but trauma at birth like hypoxemia is also considered to be a risk factor
  • excessive marijuana use during adolescence is a major risk factor
  • may be associated w/ structural changes in brain
  • highly associated w/ excess of dopamine in brain
    • many medications are neuroleptics which block dopamine receptors

• major depressive disorder - mood disorder characterized by at least one major depressive episode
  • major depressive episode - period of at least two weeks w/ five of following symptoms
    • prominent and persistent depressed mood
    • anhedonia - loss of interest in all or most enjoyable activities
    • appetite disturbances
    • substantial weight changes
    • sleep disruption
    • decreased energy
    • feelings of worthlessness/ excessive guilt
    • difficulty concentrating or thinking
    • feeling slowed down
    • thoughts of death or attempts at suicide
  • at least one symptom must be depressed mood or anhedonia
• persistent depressive disorder - similar symptoms to MDD, but marked by dysthymia (depressed mood not severe enough to constitute diagnosis)
  • major depressive disorder patients w/ symptoms lasting at least two years can also receive diagnosis
• seasonal affective disorder - MDD that fluctuates w/ the seasons (usually depression get worse during winter months)
  • treatable w/ bright light therapy to combat abnormal melatonin metabolism
• markers
  • high glucose metabolism in amygdala
  • hippocampal atrophy after long duration of illness
  • abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids
  • decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine
• monoamine theory of depression - norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine and their metabolites found at lower levels in depressed patients indicating that they are likely at fault for symptoms

• bipolar/manic depressive disorders - mood disorders characterized by depression and mania
  • mania - abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week
    • increased distractibility
    • decreased need for sleep
    • inflated self-esteem/grandiosity
    • racing thoughts
    • increased goal-directed activity/agitation
    • pressured speech/increased talkativeness
    • high-risk behavior
  • manic episodes have more rapid onset and smaller duration
• bipolar I disorder - manic episodes w/ or w/out depressive episodes
• bipolar II disorder - hypomania w/ at least one major depressive episode
  • hypomania - presence of energetic and optimistic outlook that doesn't significantly affect normal functioning or have psychotic features
• cyclothymic disorder - hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia not severe enough to qualify as major depressive episodes
• markers and causes
  • monoamine theory - increased norepinephrine and serotonin
  • higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder
  • higher risk for persons w/ MS

• generalized anxiety disorder - disproportionate and persistent worry about many different things for at least 6 months
  • symptoms include fatigue, muscle tension, and sleep problems accompanying a sense of worry
• specific phobias - irrational fear of something that results in compelling desire to avoid it
• social anxiety disorder - anxiety due to social situations
  • persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situations that may result in embarrassment
• agoraphobia - fear of being in places or in situation where it might be hard to escape
  • uncomfortable leaving home for fear of panic or exacerbation of another mental illness
• panic disorder - repeated panic attacks
  • symptoms include fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, and sense of unrelaity
  • frequently accompanied by agoraphobia due to pervasive fear of having panic attack in public

• OCD - characterized by obsessions which produce tension and compulsions that relieve tensions but cause significant impairment in person's life
  • obsessions raise stress and compulsions relieve it
• Body Dysmorphic Disorder - unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directed toward certain part of body
  • disrupts day-to-day life
  • sufferer may seek multiple plastic surgeries or other extreme interventions

• Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - after experiencing or witnessing traumatic event, patient experiences following symptoms:
  • intrusion symptoms - recurrent reliving of event
  • avoidance symptoms - deliberate attempts to avoid memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated w/ trauma
  • negative cognitive symptoms - inability to recall key features of event, negative mood and emotions, feeling distanced from others, persistent negative view of world
  • arousal symptoms - increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior, and sleep disturbances
• these symptoms must be present for at least one month or diagnosis will be acute stress disorder

• Dissociative Amnesia - inability to recall past experiences
  • amnesia not due to neurological disorder
  • often linked to trauma
  • dissociative fugue - sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily activities
    • confusion about identity and sometimes assumption of new identity
• Dissociative Identity Disorder - two or more personalities recurrently take control of person's behavior
  • components of identity fail to integrate usually due to physical or sexual abuse as a child
  • personalities can be integrated w/ therapy
• Depersonalization/ Derealization Disorder -
  • depersonalization - individuals feel detached from their own mind and body
  • derealization - feel detached from their surroundings
  • presents feeling of automation
  • failure to recognize one's reflection
  • person does not display psychotic symptoms like delusions or hallucinations

• Somatic symptom disorder - presence of at least one somatic symptom accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of an excessive amount of time and energy to it, or elevated levels of anxiety
• Illness anxiety disorder - consumed w/ thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition
  • quick to become alarmed about health
  • excessively check themselves for signs of illness or avoid medical appointments altogether
• conversion disorder - unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory function
  • begin soon after individual experiences high levels of stress or traumatic event but may not develop until time has passed
  • example: paralysis or blindness w/out neurological evidence 
  • la belle indifference - person may be surprisingly unconcerned by symptom

• pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive causing distress or impaired functioning in at least 2 of following:
  • cognition
  • emotions
  • intrapersonal functioning
  • impulse control
• personality disorders are ego-syntonic - individual perceives behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony w/ goals
  • ego-dystonic - individual sees illness as something thrust upon them as intrusive and bothersome - most disorders
• general personality disorder and 10 personality disorders grouped into clusters A, B, and C exist

• Paranoid Personality Disorder - pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives
  • may be in prodromal phase of schizophrenia
  • termed premorbid
• Schizotypal personality disorder - odd or eccentric thinking
  • ideas of reference - similar to delusions of reference but less severe
  • magical thinking - superstitiousness or belief in clairvoyance
• Schizoid personality disorder - detachment from social relationships and restricted range of emotional expression
  • little desire for social interactions
• neither schizotypal or schizoid personality are same as schizophrenia, but do share some symptoms

• Antisocial - pattern of disregard for and violations of others' rights
  • more common in males
  • evidenced by repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, or lack of remorse
• borderline - pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image
  • more common in females
  • often take part in intense and unstable relationships
  • profound identity disturbance w/ uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values
  • intense fear of abandonment
  • may use splitting as defense mechanism - view of others is either all good or all bad
  • self-mutilation and suicide attempts common
• histrionic - constant attention-seeking behavior
  • wear colorful clothing, are dramatic, and are exceptionally extroverted
  • may use seductive behavior to gain attention
• narcissistic - grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation w/ fantasies of success, need for constant admiration and attention, characteristic disturbances in interpersonal relationships such as feelings of entitlement
  • very fragile self-esteem 
  • constantly concerned w/ how they are viewed by others
  • marked feelings of rage, inferiority, shame, humiliation, or emptiness when individuals are not viewed favorably by others

• avoidant - individual has extreme shyness and fear of rejection
  • sees themself as socially inept and often socially isolated, despite intense desire for social affection and acceptance
  • avoid changing despite wanting to change
• dependent - continuous need for reassurance
  • remain dependent on one specific person to take actions and make decisions
• obsessive-compulsive - perfectionistic and inflexible, tending to like rules and order
  • different from OCD - OCD is ego-dystonic while OCPD is ego-syntonic; OCPD is lifelong while OCD is focal and acquired
  • inability to discard worn-out objects, lack of desire to change, excessive stubbornness, lack of sense of humor, and maintenance of careful routines

• social action - actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around
  • considers just the individual's response to psychological group dynamics
• social interaction - ways in which two or more individuals can both shape each other's behavior
  • group processes and culture

• concept of social action (individual)
• based on observation that people tend to perform better on simple tasks in presence of others
  • supports idea that people naturally exhibit performance response when they know they are watched
• Yerkes-Dodson Law of Social Facilitation
  • While Yerkes-Dodson Law of arousal assessed arousal in relation to complex tasks, this assesses arousal in relation to simple and complex tasks
  • shows that presence of others induces increased levels of arousal improving performance on simple tasks while improving or impairing performance on complex tasks depending on level of arousal 

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• concept of social action (individual)
• states that individual behavior can be dramatically different in social environments
• can lead to antinormative behavior - behavior against the norm
• why?
  • large group provides anonymity to individual and consequent loss of individual identity
  • sense of anonymity (uniforms and masks) makes individual more likely to act in manner that is inconsistent with normal self
  • increased anonymity is correlated w/ individual acting more consistently in manner unrepresentative of normal self

• concept of social action (individual)
• individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are presence
• likelihood and timeliness of response is inversely related to number of bystanders and directly related to how well individual knows members of group
• Why?
  • people less likely to notice danger in groups
    • likely due to social etiquette - inconsiderate to watch others and their surroundings
  • humans take cues from others 
    • people less likely to respond if others are not responding
  • degree of responsibility felt by bystander
    • determined by competency of bystander, relationship w/ victim, and whether they consider victim deserving of help
  • cohesiveness of group
    • groups of strangers make people less likely to respond

• concept of social action (individual)
• people put in less effort when in group setting than individually

• concept of social action (individual)
• social influence placed on individual by group of people or another individual
  • peer - individuals who are equals w/in social group
  • peers have a great deal of shaping power in individuals' behaviors and patterns of thought, especially during adolescence
    • in children, social acceptance is associated w/ being most like social norm of group, regardless of positive or negative connotations
  • peer pressure has strong effect that it has been shown to cause individuals to provide incorrect answers just to avoid going against the group
• Why?
  • identity shift effect
    • individual's state of harmony is disrupted by threat of social rejection, so individual will conform to norms of group
    • doing so will cause individual to experience internal conflict as they act outside their normal character
    • individual will experience identity shift to alleviate cognitive dissonance created by behavior
      • individual adopts standards of group as their own

• polarization is a social action concept while choice shift is a social interaction concept
• groups polarization - tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme (either riskier or more cautious) than individual ideas and inclinations of members w/in group
  • choice shift
    • ideal of social interaction - applies to two or more individuals
    • originally risky shift as it was noted that groups tend to make riskier decisions than individuals
    • individuals also can shift toward caution leading to change to choice shift
  • polarization describes same idea as choice shift, but applies to an individual w/in the group

• concept of social interaction (group dynamics)
• refers to desire for harmony or conformity resulting in group of people to come to incorrect or poor decision
  • in attempt to eliminate or minimize conflict, consensus decisions are reached w/out alternative ideas being assessed
  • desire to agree causes loss of independent critical thinking
  • group also begins to isolate and ignore external viewpoints
• Important factors contributing to groupthink phenomena 
  • illusion of invulnerability
  • collective rationalization - ignore warnings against group
  • illusion of morality
  • excessive stereotyping - stereotypes against outside opinions
  • pressure for conformity
  • self-censorship - members of group withhold dissenting opinions
  • illusion of unanimity
  • mindguards - appointment of members to role of protecting against opposing views 
• this idea is what leads to cultural phenomena like fads or mass hysteria

• culture - beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of group or society of people
  • learned by living w/in society, observing behaviors and traits, and adopting them
  • universal throughout humanity as observed by variable behaviors of individuals based on the culture in which they reside
    • animals do not normally display these types of behaviors and are far more instinctive
• assimilation
  • process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group
    • groups with different cultures begin to merge into one
    • new aspect of a society and culture are integrated w/ old ones
    • this melding is almost never an even processing taking far more traits of one culture w/ more influence and power
      • american culture takes some aspects of mexican culture w/ increasing immigration, but the culture is still far removed
  • process can be slowed by ethnic enclaves
    • locations w/ high concentration of one specific ethnicity - think chinatown's and little italy's
  • creation of the melting pot
• multiculturalism
  • communities and societies containing multiple cultures
  • encourages, respects, and celebrates cultural differences
  • creates cultural mosaic filled w/ various, distinct cultures as opposed to melting pot
• subculture
  • groups of people w/in culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong
  • can be perceived as negative when they subvert majority culture's definition of normalcy
    • counterculture - subculture group that gravitates toward identity at odds w/ majority culture and deliberately opposes prevailing social norms
      • the hippies

• socialization - process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs
  • individuals gain knowledge, skills, habits, and behaviors necessary for inclusion in society
  • views of society become accepted viewpoints and are adopted by individuals w/in
  • cultural transmission/learning - manner in which a society socializes its members
  • cultural diffusion - spread of norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture
• primary socialization
  • occurs during childhood
  • initially learning acceptable actions and attitude in society relies on observation of parents and other adults in close proximity
  • sets the stage for future socialization
• secondary socialization
  • socialization that occurs later (usually associated w/ adolescence and adulthood)
  • process of learning appropriate behavior w/in smaller sections of larger society
  • occurs outside home and is based on learning specific rules of specific social environment
  • assesses smaller changes and refinements to behavior established through primary socialization
• anticipatory socialization
  • secondary socialization can occur when moving to a new region, changing schools, or switching professions
  • anticipatory socialization prepares person for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships
  • could include couple living together before marriage
• resocialization
  • process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change
  • can have positive or negative outcomes 

• norms - societal rules that define boundaries of acceptable behavior
  
  • act as form of social control - provide mechanism for regulating behavior of individuals and groups
  • provide us with sense of what is appropriate, what we should do, and what is considered taboo
  • mores - widely observed social norms
  • folkways - norms that refer to behavior that is considered "polite" in particular social interactions (i.e. shaking hands)
• sanctions - penalties for misconduct or rewards for appropriate behavior can also maintain social control 
  • can be formal (enforced by social institutions) or informal (enforced by social behaviors)

• deviance - violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society
  • does not have to be objectively negative (like murder; can lead to positive social change)
  • any act that larger society meets w/ disapproval
• stigma - extreme disapproval or dislike of person or group based on perceived differences from rest of society
  • include differences in beliefs, abilities, behaviors, and appearance as well as certain medical conditions/physical features
  • can spread to affect others who are associated w/ a stigmatized individual
  • evolves over time

• strongly linked w/ concepts of deviance, stigmatization, and reputation
• states that labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's own self-image
  • can lead to channeling of behavior into deviance or conformity
  • we may resist being labeled, particularly w/ labels we perceive as negative
  • however, some may embrace deviant labels to enhance perception of their own subgroup

• strongly linked w/ deviance, stimagization, and reputation
• states that deviance can be learned through interactions w/ others
  • intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior themself
  • degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs. ideals that go against them determines whether one gravitates toward normative or deviant behaviors

• strongly linked w/ deviance, stigmatization, and reputation
• explains deviance as a natural reaction to disconnect between social goals and social structure
  • Acquiring wealth and personal success is American Dream, but American reality is one that forces many away from this goal; these individuals will act deviantly to attain social goal outside bounds of social structure
  • shows how deviance, while associated w/ negative behavior like crime, is necessary to maintain social order
    
    • certain deviant behaviors may promote necessary social change as they make people aware of an issue
    • deviant behavior also provides clear perception of social norms, acceptable boundaries, and the importance of social unity

• matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms
  • pressure to conform can be real or imagine - actual pressure from others or perceived pressure or expectation
  • normative conformity - desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection
  • internalization - changing one's behavior to fit w/ group while also privately agreeing w/ ideas of group
  • identification - outward acceptance of others' ideas w/out personally taking on these ideas
• stanford prison experiment showed how we internalize our roles w/in a group
  • guards showed increasingly dominant and violent behavior
  • prisoners showed increasingly submissive behavior

• change in behavior based on direct request from person or group that is not asking from place of power or authority (different from obedience)
• various techniques can be used to elicit voluntary compliance
  • foot-in-the-door technique - small request is made, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made
    • first request opens the door for continued compliance
  • door-in-the-face technique - large request is ade at first and, if refused, a second, smaller request is made
    • smaller request is usually the actual goal of the requester
  • lowball technique - requestor gets initial commitment from an individual and then raises the cost of the commitment
    • cost can involve money, time, or effort
  • that's-not-all technique - individual is made offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than expected
    • frequently used in infomercials

• changing one's behavior in response to a direct order (not request) from an authority figure (different from compliance)
  • people are far more likely to obey than comply due to real or perceived social power of authority giving order
• Stanley Milgram shock study proved this
  • as participants in learner role acted more and more uncomfortable from increasing levels of shock, teachers became less willing to increase the shocks
  • by using increasingly demanding language, researchers were able to get 65% of participants to administer shocks despite discomfort

• expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario
  • develop from past experiences w/ others who affect our opinions and behaviors 
    • can affect our attitudes toward something/somebody before even meeting them
• have 3 primary components
  • affective component
    • way a person feels toward something; emotional component of attitude
    • I am scared of snakes
  • behavioral component
    • way a person acts w/ respect to something
    • person avoids snakes
  • cognitive component
    • way individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components
    • i know that snakes can be dangerous

• attitudes serve four functions
  • knowledge
    • provides consistency and stability
    • attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior
  • ego-expressive
    • allows us to communicate and solidify our self-identity
  • adaptive
    • one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed
  • ego-defensive
    • they protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong

Learning Theory

• states that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning
  • direct contact w/ object can influence attitudes
  • direct instruction from others can also influence attitudes
  • our attitudes can also be influenced by others' attitudes 
  • attitudes may also be formed through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning

• aims to explain different ways of processing stimuli, why they are used, and their outcomes on attitude change
• separates individuals on continuum based on processing of persuasive information
  • central route processing - one extreme is those who elaborate extensively
    • think deeply about information, scrutinize its meaning and purpose, and draw conclusions or make decisions based on this thought
  • peripheral route processing - other extreme is those who do not elaborate
    • focus on superficial details - appearance of person delivering argument, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility

• postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others
  • behavior is not learned by trial-and-error, but develops through direct observation and replication of actions of others and in tandem w/ influence of personal factors (attitude/ thoughts about behavior) and the environment in which we observe that behavior
  • these factors (behavior, personal factors, and environment) are not independent concepts, but influence each other

• position in society used to classify individuals
  • most must exist in relation to other statuses
  • come in three types
    • ascribed - given involuntarily due to such factors as race, ethnicity, gender, and family background
    • achieved - gained as result of one's efforts or choices
    • master - status by which a person is most identified
      • most important status individual holds and affects all aspects of life
      • generally how individual views themself and holds symbolic value
      • can lead to pigeonholing - viewing individual only through lens of their master status w/out regard to any other personal characteristics

• role - set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold status
  • role performance - carrying out of behaviors associated w/ given role
    • can change depending on social situation and context of interaction
    • behaviors and expectations of somebody change with changing role partner 
      • person w/ whom individual is interacting
  • role set - various roles associated w/ a status
• role conflict - difficulty in satisfying requirements or expectations of multiple roles
• role strain - difficulty satisfying multiple expectations of one role
• role exit - dropping of one identity for another

• group/social group - consists of two or more people who share similar characteristics and sense of unity
  • simplest forms are dyads (2 people) and triads (3 people)
  • larger group sizes sacrifice intimacy for stability
  • social groups must share values, interests, ethnicity, social background, family ties, and political representation
  • social interaction is considered most important characteristic that strengthens group
• types of groups
  • peer group - defined by association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses
    • provide opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging
  • family group - not self-selected but determined by birth, adoption, and marriage
    • joins members of various ages, sexes, and generations through emotional ties
    • can be filled w/ conflict (puberty)
    • may also struggle w/ cultural gaps and social differences between generations (language or political position)
  • in-group - group to which individual belongs
  • out-group - group to which an individual competes or is in opposition
  • reference group - group that establishes terms by which individuals evaluate themselves
    • to determine how good an applicant you are, you may use pool of previously accepted applicants as reference group

• primary group - interactions are direct with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members
  • last long periods of time
  • core circle of friends, tightly knit family, members of team
• secondary group - interactions are superficial with few emotional bonds
  • last short periods of time
  • form and dissolve w/out any special significance
  • students working together on group project or distant co-workers

• Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft by Ferdinand Tonnies established two major groups
  • gemeinschaft or community
    • group unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography
    • neighborhoods and families
  • gesellschaft or society
    • group formed because of mutual self-interests working toward common goal
    • nations and companies

• interaction process analysis - technique for observing, classifying, and measuring interactions w/in small groups
  • revised to system for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)
    • based on belief that there are three fundamental dimensions of interaction
      • dominance v. submission
      • friendliness v. unfriendliness
      • instrumentally controlled v. emotionally expressive
• group conformity - group holds power over its members, creating group pressure that ultimately shapes members' behaviors
  • individuals are compliant w/ group's goals even if group's goals go against individual's goals
  • individuals conform in attempt to fit in and be accepted by group
• groupthink is a very related ideal to group conformity

• network - observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups
  • can be determined by mapping interactions between individual units - highly variable
  • network redundancy - overlapping connections w/ same individual
  • network analysis can be used to gain understanding of actions of individuals and groups and to study broader social structure
• immediate network - dense w/ strong ties
  • may include friends
• distant network - looser and contain weaker ties
  • may include acquaintances
• combination of immediate and distant networks provides most benefit to individuals, which is augmented if networks work complementarity to provide different resources

• organizations - entities that are set up to achieve specific goals and are characterized by having structure and culture
• formal organization
  • different from groups in many ways
    • continue despite departure of individual member
      • allows for history before and after individual member
    • have expressed goals typically recorded in written format to guide members and their activities
    • have enforcement procedures that seek to control activities of members
    • characterized by hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members
• characteristic institution
  • basic organization of society found in its characteristic institution
  • this has changed w/ time from clans and kin to bureaucracy
• bureaucracy - rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control
  •  have six characteristics
    • paid, nonelected officials w/ fixed salary
    • officials who are provided rights and privileges as result of making career out of holding office
    • regular salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions as rewards for milestones
    • officials who enter organization by holding advanced degree or training
    • responsibilities, obligations, privileges, and work procedures rigidly defined by organization
    • responsibility for meeting demands of one's position
  • these characteristics make bureaucracies slow to change and less efficient than other organizations
• McDonaldization - shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies 
  • basically modern companies

• states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by elite group
  • due to number of factors
    • necessity of core body of individuals to carry out day-to-day activities in organization
    • increased need for specialization
    • leadership characteristics of certain members of group

• self-presentation - process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors
  • term often used interchangeably w/ impression management
• impression management - attempts to influence how others perceive us
  • done through regulation or controlling of information in social interactions
  • typically define three selves (sound familiar?)
    • authentic self - who person actually is
    • ideal self - who person would like to be under optimal circumstances
    • tactical self - who person markets themself to be when they adhere to others' expectations
• dramaturgical approach to impression management
  • person's status is likened to person's part in performance and role in the script
  • front stage - where actor is in front of audience and performs according to setting, role, and script to conform to image he wants others to see
  • back stage - where actor is not being observed by audience and is free to act in ways not congruent w/ desired public image
• other theory of self dependent on social interaction is "I" vs. "Me"
  • "I" - creative expression of individual
  • "Me" - part of self that is response to environment

• basic model of emotional expression is off-shoot of Darwin's theory of evolution
  • emotional expression involves number of components that were developed evolutionarily and, therefore, should be shared across cultures
    • facial expression
    • behavior
    • posture
    • vocal changes
    • physiological changes
  • researchers have found a number of emotions experienced universally across humanity, but this model most certainly simplifies impact of culture
• Appraisal model is closely related to Darwin's basic model
  • accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once emotion is experienced, but there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression

• assumes no biological basis for emotions
• states that emotions are based on experiences and situational context alone
  • also suggests that certain emotions can only exist w/in social encounters and that emotions are expressed differently across cultures
  • one must be familiar w/ social norms for certain emotion to perform corresponding emotional behaviors in given social situation
• display rules - cultural expectations of emotion
  • may differ as function of culture, gender, or family background of individual
  • govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree
  • expression can be managed by:
    • simulating feelings
    • qualifying, amplifying, or deamplifying feelings
    • masking emotion w/ another 
    • neutralizing any emotional expression whatsoever
• cultural syndrome - shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of same culture that are organized around central theme
  • influence rules for expressing or suppressing emotions, and can even influence ways emotions are experienced

• interpersonal attraction is the phenomenon of individuals liking each other (as friends, romantically, or otherwise)
• draws towards attraction
  • physical features like symmetrical faces and golden ratio body proportions
  • similar attitudes, intelligence, education, height, age, religion, appearance, and socioeconomic status
  • opportunity for self-disclosure 
    
    • sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals w/ another person and being met w/ non-judgemental empathy
    • must be reciprocal
  • reciprocal liking
    • people like others better when they believe other person likes them
  • proximity
    • just being physically close to someone
    • partially due to convenience in making interpersonal interactions
    • mere exposure (familiarity) effect
      •  people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently
      • song you hate could become song you like w/ continued exposure

• behavior that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance
• evolutionary reasons
  • aggression offers protection against perceived and real threats
  • helps organisms fight off predators, gain access to resources, gain additional territory, or win mates
• biological backing
  • amygdala responds to stimuli by associating previous stimuli w/ corresponding rewards or punishment - tells us if threat is present
  • increases aggression upon activation, but can be calmed by higher-order brain structures, especially prefrontal cortex
    • reduced activity of prefrontal cortex = increased aggressive behavior
  • aggression also associated w/ high testosterone levels
• cognitive association model
  • we are more likely to respond to others aggressively when we feel negative emotions (tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain)
  • exposure to violent behavior
    • viewing violent behavior correlates to increase in aggressive behavior as demonstrated through bobo doll experiment (observational learning)

• attachment is emotional bond between caregiver and child; begins during infancy
• infants need secure base in form of consistent caregiver during first 6 months - 2 years of life
• secure attachment
  • child has consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore, knowing that there is a secure base to return to
  • child shows preference to caregiver over any supportive stranger
  • child is upset by departure of caregiver and relieved by their return
  • vital aspect of child's social development as patterns of avoidant, ambivalent, or disorganized attachment have negative consequences on social skill development
• avoidant attachment
  • caregiver has little or no response to distressed child
  • child will show no preference between caregiver and stranger and shows no concern about departure or return of caregiver
• ambivalent attachment
  • caregiver has inconsistent response to child's distress
  • child is unable to form secure base as they cannot consistently rely on caregiver
  • child is distressed upon departure of caregiver but will have mixed emotions over their return
  • anxious-ambivalent attachment - child is always anxious about reliability of caregiver
• disorganized attachment
  • children display no clear pattern of behavior in response to caregiver's absence or presence, but will show mix of different behaviors
  • can include avoidance or resistance; seeming dazed, frozen, or confused; or repetitive behaviors like rocking
  • associated w/ erratic behavior and social withdrawal by caregiver - red flag for abuse

• social support is perception or reality that one is cared for by social network
• emotional support
  • listening, affirming, and empathizing w/ someone's feelings
  • what most people think of when thinking of social support
• esteem support
  • affirming qualities and skills of person,
  • reminding person of the skills they possess to tackle a problem to bolster confidence
• material support (tangible support)
  • financial or material contribution to another person
  • could be making a meal in difficult times or donating money to person in need
• informational support
  • providing information that will help someone
  • primary form of support provided by doctors
• network support
  • social support that gives person sense of belonging
• Benefits of social support
  • reduced psychological distress such as anxiety and depression
    • low social support = higher levels of mental disorders, drug abuse, and suicidal ideation
  • improvements to physical health
    • low social support = higher mortality risk from various diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer
    • high social support = better immunological health

• foraging - seeking out and eating food
• biological drive
  • hypothalamus control hunger and satiety
    • lateral hypothalamus - controls hunger
    • ventromedial hypothalamus - controls satiety
  • genetics play role in onset of foraging behavior and division of tasks between members in more social species
• cognitive
  • play strong role in success of foraging
    • spatial awareness, memory, & decision-making
  • in species that forage in groups, behavior typically learned through observation
    • hunting also learned in this way

• mating system - organization of group's sexual behavior
  • monogamy - exclusive mating relationship
  • polygamy
    • polygyny - male w/ multiple females
    • polyandry - female w/ multiple males
  • promiscuity - member of one sex mating w/ any member of opposite sex w/out exclusivity
  • most animals follow only one of these systems, but humans are far more flexible
• mate choice (intersexual selection) - selection of mate based on attraction
  • mate bias - how choosy members of species are while choosing mate
  • evolutionary mechanism at increasing fitness
  • direct benefits
    • providing material advantages, protection, and emotional support
  • indirect benefits
    • promoting better survival in offspring
• mechanisms of mate choice
  • phenotypic benefits - observable traits that make potential mate more attractive
  • sensory bias - development of trait to match pre-existing preference 
  • fisherian/runaway selection - positive feedback mechanism in which particular trait has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated overtime
    • trait deemed sexually desirable and thus is more likely to be passed on
    • increases attractiveness of trait which increases likelihood that it continues to be passed on
  • indicator traits - signify overall good health and well-being of organism
  • genetic compatibility - creation of mate pairs that, when combined, have complementary genetics
    • provides mechanism for reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders in population
      • attraction to others w/ different genes reduces probability of offspring being homozygotic

• helping behavior in which peron's intent is to benefit someone else at cost to themself
  • can be motivated by selflessness or egoism and ulterior motives
  • empathy - ability to vicariously experience emotions of another
    • strong influence on altruism
  • empathy-altruism hypothesis - one individual helps another person when they feel empathy for other person, regardless of cost

• attempts to explain decision-making behavior
• game - defined by its players, the information and actions available to each player at decision points, and payoffs associated w/ each outcome
  • game payoffs = fitness
  • strategies = inherited traits
• evolutionary stable strategy
  • when population adopts ESS, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising
  • goal of the game is to be more fit than competitors
  • hawk-dove game
    • equilibrium point occurs where magnitude of reward and cost of fighting lead to the ability of different strategies to stably coexist
      • cost of fighting becomes too large, so advantage goes to dove that is willing to share
      • reward greater than cost of fighting, so hawk has advantage
  • explains
    • altruism - donor provides benefit at cost to self
    • cooperation - donor and recipient benefit
    • spite - donor and recipient both lose
    • selfishness - donor benefits and recipient loses

• measure of organism's success in population
• based on number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and ability of offspring to support others
• altruism supported by inclusive fitness 
  • close relatives of individual may share many genes
  • promoting reproduction and survival of related or similar individuals can also lead to genetic success

• social perception - how we form impressions about characteristics of individuals and groups of people
  • also referred to as social cognition
  • provides tools to make judgements and impressions regarding others
• components of social perception
  • perceiver - one making the social perception of another
    • influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state
    • past experiences affect attitudes toward current and future experiences leading to particular expectations of events
    • motives influence what information we deem as important and what we choose to ignore
    • emotional state can flavor our interpretation of  event
  • target - person about which perception is made
    • knowledge of target can include past experiences or specific information that affect perception
    • when little info is available, there is need for greater observation and interpretation by perceiver
  • situation - given social context in which perception occurs
    • can determine what information is available to perceiver

• focuses on our selection of cues to form interpretations of others consistent over time
  
  1. all cues from target and environment taken in upon meeting unfamiliar target
  2. increasing familiarity leads to perceiver using these previously perceived cues to categorize target
     • friend v. enemy, caring v. standoffish, etc.
  3. additional time in situation leads perceiver to confirm their categorization
     • perception of target after this point is selective choosing only cues that are consistent w/ existing perception of target
• explains primacy effect - idea that first impressions are more important than subsequent impressions
• however, recency effect is also important - most recent information is most important in forming impressions
• reliance on central traits
  • individuals tend to organize their perception based on traits and characteristics of target most relevant to perceiver
• people will project their own beliefs, opinions, ideas, and actions onto others
• implicit personality theory
  • there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related
  • this is stereotyping - making assumptions about people based on perceived category

• cognitive bias in which judgements about specific aspect of individual are affected by one's overall impression of individual
• explains why people are often inaccurate when evaluating people they either believe to be generally good or generally bad
• individual's attractiveness (not just physical) also produces this effect as we tend to perceive those we find attractive as trustworthy or friendly

• cognitive bias during impression formation that is associated with a so-called just world
  
  • good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people - karma
• strong belief in just-world increases likelihood of "victim blaming"
  • victim got what they deserved, because there can be no innocent victims

• also known as self-serving attributional bias
• individuals will view their own success based on internal factors while viewing their failures as products of external factors
• defense mechanism used to protect self-esteem
• affected by motivational, cognitive, and emotional processes
  • cognitive - locus of control
  • motivational - self-enhancement
    • need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures
  • emotional
    • emotion impacts self-esteem and therefore also influences self-serving bias
• individuals w/ high self-esteem are more likely to exhibit self-serving bias to protect self-identity
• relationships and self-serving bias
  • individuals who have close relationships less likely to attribute failures to one another and will make joint attributions
  • strangers more likely to self-serve and place blame on each other

• attribution theory - focuses on tendency for individuals to infer causes of other people's behavior
• dispositional attributions
  • internal causes that relate to person whose behavior is being considered
  • aspects of personality
  • believing that friend was nominated due to hard work and personal effort
• situational attributions
  • external causes that relate to features of surroundings
  • threat, money, social norms, peer pressure, etc.
  • believing that friend won nomination due to luck
  • these attributions consider the characteristics of social context rather than characteristics of the individual as the primary cause

• cues are used to understand behavior of others (as referenced in implicit bias of social perception)
• consistency cues
  • consistent behavior of person over time
  • the more regular the behavior, the more we associate it w/ motives of person
• consensus cues
  • relate to extent to which person's behavior differs from others
  • if person deviates from socially expected behavior, we are likely to form dispositional attribution about person's behavior
• distinctiveness cues
  • refer to extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across series of scenarios
  • if person's behavior varies, we are more likely to form a situational attribution
• correspondent inference theory
  • when individual unexpectedly performs a behavior that helps or hurts us, we explain behavior by dispositional attribution
  • we may correlate these unexpected actions w/ person's personality

• states that we are generally biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions - especially in negative contexts
• when team member doesn't help assignment:
  • our immediate response will most likely be to assume member as lazy, unreliable, etc. - dispositional attributes
  • we may ignore possibility that they are ill, suffered tragedy, etc. - situational attributes

• individuals must make judgements that are complex, but instead substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic (rule-of-thumb)
  • individual may address different question or scenario w/out even realizing it
• this is common occurrence in difficult word problems, dealing w/ size and color in optical illusions, and in dealing with color in presence of visual cues(shadow, patterns, positions of sun, etc.) 

• the type of culture an individual is part of plays a major role in types of attributions individual makes
  • individualist cultures (like ours) put high value on individual, personal goals, and independence
    • make more fundamental attribution errors
    • more likely to attribute behavior to dispositional factors
  • collectivist cultures (like many asian and african societies) place high value on conformity and interdependence
    • more likely to attribute behavior to situational factors

• stereotypes - attitudes and impressions based on limited and superficial information about a person or group 
  • cognitive portion of stereotype/prejudice/discrimination trifecta
  • although potentially harmful to society, they can also play important role
  • purpose of stereotype is to make sense of complex world by categorizing and systematizing information in order to better identify items, predict behaviors, and react
• stereotype content model
  • classify stereotypes w/ respect to hypothetical in-group based on the dimensions of warmth and competence
  • warm groups
    • not in direct competition w/ in-group for resources
    • not considered threat
  • competent groups
    • have high status w/in society
  • these dimensions allow for 4 possible types of stereotypes:
    • paternalistic - group looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored
    • contemptuous - group is viewed w/ resentment, annoyance, or anger
    • envious - group is viewed w/ jealousy, bitterness, or distrust
    • admiration - group is viewed w/ pride and other positive feelings

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• phenomenon in which stereotypes lead to expectations of certain groups that create conditions in which those expectations are met
  • medical student may be stereotyped as being unable to quickly and efficiently throw knots during surgery
  • the medical student may get nervous to suture the first time leading them to struggle w/ the process
  • expectation of medical student being bad at process leads to medical student's anxiety and fulfillment of the aforementioned expectation

• concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming negative stereotype about one's social group
  • can cause reduced performance, encourage self-handicapping strategies, and lower one's personal investment in activity
  • due to awareness of these stereotypes, an individual may perform worse or avoid performance altogether
• vulnerability to this phenomenon is based on how highly individual identifies w/ stereotyped group
  • when women take math test w/ other women, scores are higher than when taken w/ men
  • self-identification w/ group and awareness of stereotypes resulted in reduced performance

• affective portion of stereotype/prejudice/discrimination trifecta
• irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience w/ that entity
  • process of socialization results in formation of attitudes regarding one's one group and sense of identity as individual and group member
  • due to this process, dissimilarities among groups, races, ethnicities, or environments can lead to prejudice
• these attitudes have significant effects on perception and behavior and can run gamut from hate to love, contempt to admiration, and indifference to loyalty
• social factors influencing prejudice
  • power - ability of people or groups to achieve goals despite any obstacles, and their ability to control resources
  • prestige - level of respect shown to person by others
  • class - socioeconomic status
  • these factors divide people into haves and have-nots
    • have-nots may dislike haves based on jealousy
    • haves may dislike have-nots as defense mechanism to justify having more

• practice of making judgements about other cultures based on values and beliefs of one's own culture, especially when it comes to language, customs, and religion
  • can manifest as innocent displays of pride or violent supremacy groups
• ethnocentrism is based on the idea of in-groups and out-groups
  • in-group - social group w/ which person experiences sense of belonging or identifies as member
  • out-group - social group w/ which individual does not identify
  • in-groups can form based on variety of characteristics like race, culture, gender, religion, profession, or education
  • **negative feelings toward out-group are not based on dislike, but simply on favoritism for in-group that out-group doesn't have