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| a bag of skin containing the testes, keeping them out of the body |
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| area where sperm are sent to mature and await ejaculation |
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| long tube connecting all parts of the system |
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| creates a thick sugary fluid that provides energy for swimming sperm |
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| creates a thinner fluid for sperm to swim in |
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| mixture of seminal and prostate fluids and sperm |
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| last passageway sperm travel to get outside |
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| sperm-injecting structure |
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| Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes) |
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tubes that connect ovaries to the rest of the female reproductive system
Release ova directly into the FTs
Ovum waits here for fertilization
Fertilization occurs in FT |
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| large space surrounded by flexible sides |
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| portal through which sperm enter the body |
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egg cells burst out of ovary
they remain in the oviduct waiting to be fertilized |
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| Uterus is preparing for possibility of a baby |
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Walls/sides become flexible
increased blood supply
creates a nutrient rich fluid |
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| IF NO FERTILIZATION OCCURS... |
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Definition
egg, along with all uterine materials, gets flushed out through Vagina
another egg is ovulated and the cycle begins again |
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| millions of sperm leave the male during ejaculation and enter through vagina and work their way up through uterus/FT |
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| female creates a highly acidic fluid that kills most sperm on contact (survival of the fittest, sucka'z) |
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| One sperm's nucleus unites with the egg nucleus (winner) |
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| A zygote forms and is transported to the uterus AND it embeds itself in the uterine walls (implantation) |
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| Zygote/embryo/fetus develops entirely within the female and is fully developed when born [most mammals and some reptiles] |
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| Zygote/embryo/fetus develops outside body of the female but within a protective egg [all birds, amphibians, fish, some reptiles] |
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| Zygote/embryo/fetus development takes place within female by ALSO in a protective egg. When egg is laid it contains a fully developed baby in it [sharks, rays, crocodilians] |
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| Zygote --> Embryo (formation) |
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Definition
| Zygote --> Morula --> Blastula --> Gastrula |
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| little ball of cells that contain some volume of zygote (3 days after fertilization) |
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| Cells are stem cells (undifferentiated 'plain' cells) they have not become anything but CAN become any type of cell |
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| forms when an indentation occurs on one side (Gastrulation) and establishes an inside and outside cells |
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| Further Mitosis to Gastrula |
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| Further mitosis creates ECTO MESO and ENDO germ layers |
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| form nerves, brain, and skin |
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| form bone, blood, blood vessels, heart, kidney, reproductive system |
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| forms digestive system and respiratory system |
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| embryo is created when rudimentary organ systems form |
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| In viviparous creatures, the AMNION is... |
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| the membrane that forms around embryo. It fills with fluid |
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grows out of uterine walls and umbilical cord connects it to embryo
directs nutrients and Oxygen from females body into embryo and pumps waste products out of embryo |
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| a characteristic of any organism |
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| a trait determined by genes (and one that is passable to offspring) |
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a 'recipe' for a protein/enzyme
a sequence of N-bases on the DNA that 'codes' for that protein/enzyme |
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| the passing of traits from generation to generations |
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| study of heredity- how genes get passed |
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| any number of forms that a gene can take, e.g. the gene for ete color has two: blue/brown |
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| 'packets' of double stranded DNA (in which is found all the genes) |
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| Mendel chose peas because: |
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Definition
Short Generations
Easily observed traits
Could control the mating |
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| Theory of Factors (Genes) |
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| 'something' is passed from parents to offspring that controls the appearance of traits |
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for each trait, an individual possesses a pair of factors (alleles)
1 from mom
1 from dad |
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| Theory of Dominance/Recessive |
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| some factors (alleles) are dominant; some are recessive |
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| both alleles of the pair are the same (D/D or r/r) |
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| one allele of a pair is dominant and the other recessive |
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factors (alleles) for each trait come in pairs
these pairs are split up (segregated) during meiosis)
one allele goes into 2 sperms/eggs, the other goes into another 2 sperm/eggs
the allele pairs are reestablished at fertilization when gametes unite |
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| Law of Independent Assortment |
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Definition
says that traits are passed on/inherited independently of each other
during meiosis (gamete formation) there is a random mixing up/distribution of homologues into the daughter cells (gametes)
this explains the variability in offspring of same parents |
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| Polygene/Polygenic Traits |
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Definition
many traits require multiple proteins/enzymes
multiple proteins require multiple genes (polygenes) for their manufacture |
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2 or more different alleles show up at the same time in the same phenotype, causing a blend.
white bunny + black bunny = grey bunny |
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2 alleles both show up in the same phenotype- in this case, both show up fully (not mixed) and independently of one another
white rabbit + black rabbit = white-and-black spotted rabbit |
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| Sex Determination and Sex Chromosomes |
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Definition
In humans there are 2 SCs X and Y
Males= XY
Females= XX |
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| Some of the genes on Sex Chromosomes have nothing to do with gender; they include color vision and blood clotting protein. Mutations of these will affect more males than females |
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| 'screw-up' in a gene, a chromosome, or in the number of chromosomes |
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| occur during the gene/r-some copying process (replication) |
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| addition/deletion of nucleotides that shift codon sequences |
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| Genetic Mutations result in |
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| mistaken amino acids being put on final protein, which could alter the shape |
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| Mutations Show Up when... |
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| when all cells possess the mutations... The zygote has to possess the mutation for it to show up in the phenotype |
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| Nondisjunction, Insertion, Inversion, Deletion, and Translocation |
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| screw-up in c-some number |
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| in a tetrad, c-somes can get into such close contact that their c-some 'robs' N-tides from its neighbor. As they separate, one c-some 'pulls' a bunch of n-tides off its neighbor |
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| during the copying of a c-some, large sections get copied upside down in relation to the original order |
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| during copying, large sections of a c-some don't get copied at all |
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| when sections of one c-some get copied onto an entirely different one |
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Definition
| Down's Syndrome, Cystic Fibrosis, and Sickle-Cell Anemia |
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| Down's Syndrome (Trisomy 21) |
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| Nondisjunction autosomal disorder |
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| Genetic autosomal mutation affecting the gene for mucus |
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| Genetic Autosomal mutation that screws up the formation of red blood cells |
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| Sex/Sex-Linked Mutations/Disorders |
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| involves mutations of either genes on the SCs of the number of SCs |
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| Genetic Sex-Linked Mutations |
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| Color-blindness, hemophilia, muscular dystrophy. Almost all sufferers are male |
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| Nondisjunction Disorders (involving the sex chromosomes) |
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| Kline-Felters Syndrome, Turner Syndrome, XXX Super Female |
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| Develops an extra X ---> XXY which produces more feminine features |
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| a female missing an X --> (X) doesn't fully develop and androgynous |
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| (XXX): Amazonian Features |
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| Amniocentesis: removal of amniotic fluid during embryonic development (Karyotype is made). Genetic mutations are difficult/impossible to detect early |
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| an individual with 100% the same genotypes as another individual, i.e. identical twins |
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change in organisms over HUGE amounts of time
change of one species into another |
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a group of organisms so closely related that they can reproduce with each other.
the resultant offspring are able to reproduce as well. |
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| remains of long extinct organisms |
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features/organs/parts of living organisms that are reduced/useless (vestiges) but that actually served a function in extinct, ancestral organisms
Hips on whales
Appendix in humans |
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| parts/organs/structures that serve more or less the same purpose (sometimes different) and are composed/arranged/derived similarly on different organisms (suggesting a common ancestor) |
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| on different organisms are parts that have same function but are entirely different in their composition (bird wing/insect wing) |
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| Organisms change due to use and disuse and inheritance of acquired characteristics |
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if a body part is USED extensively, it develops/grows/enlarges.
if a part is NOT used, (i.e. disused) it under-develops/shrinks/disappears over generations |
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| Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics/Traits |
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| traits acquired ruing lifetime (as opposed to being born with) can be passed on to offspring so a used/developed feature or disused/reduced feature can show up in offspring |
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| Overproduction, competition, variations, adaptations, survival of the fittest, and natural selection |
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| each organism (can) produce more offspring than can possibly survive (leads to competition) |
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| because there are so many offspring, they will have to compete for food, habitat, mates, etc. The losers die out, the winners get all the goods |
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| not all members of the same species are exactly alike, i.e. there are slight differences |
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| sexual reproduction (independent assortment), mutations, crossing over (during meiosis, when h-logs come together, sometimes large sequences 'cross over' and 'trade' parts) and Random Fertilization (any old sperm fertilizes any old egg) |
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| allow an organism to win in the 'struggle for existence'. Darwin theorized that these traits gets passed down. Appearance of them is random: pure chance |
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| those that 'fit' the best have the greater chance, this they reproduce more and their 'fit'ness is passed on (theoretical, not totally true) |
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| Nature decides what the best fit is. But MUTATIONS (in the end) create adaptations |
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| when certain genders 'select' mates based on variations they may possess. These are then passed on to the offspring, thus the sexes take place of 'nature/environment' in 'selecting' what variations are 'good' and worth mating with |
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| Geographical Isolation created by a physical boundary (mountain) thus providing different conditions, thus going their 'separate' ways, thus forming their own species |
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| Reproductive Isolation, i.e. there's no physical separation, but certain members of the group isolate themselves based on mutually appealing variations |
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| Combo of allopatric/sympatric speciation. A single species goes into multiple species within the same locale. Certain variations allow a sub-group to separate from the rest. These allow group to exploit resources the rest can't. Relieves competition. |
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| Gradualism vs Punctuated Equilibrium |
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