collection of one-way vessels

network of non-interconnected lymphoid organs

house immune cells

primary sites of immune response activation and specialization

collection of fluids and particulate matter from connective tissues

filtration of fluids

return to bloodstream

lymphatic capillaries

lymph

minivalves

modified endothelium to allow permeability

loosely jointed endothelial cells

minivalves

anchor endothelial cells to surounding structures

prevent capillary collapse due to increase in interstitial fluid volume (fluid increases, valves open, allow fluids to enter lymphatic system)

lost blood fluids and proteins

ions

large particles (cell debris, bacteria, microorganisms)

metastasizing cancer cells

specialized lymphatic capillaries in intestinal villi

transport digested fats (absorb and the deliver them to blood)

lymphatic capillaries converge to vessels

collecting vessels merge to form trunks, ducts empty into right duct and thoracic duct, empty into subclavian veins

via skeletal muscle contractions

valves to prevent backflow in larger vessels

smooth muscle in largest vessels contribute

obstruction of lymphatic system

may result in accumulation of interstitial fluid and swelling

b cells produce antigen-specific antibodies (immunoglobins)

interact in extracellular environments

lymph nodes

spleen

thymus

tonsils

small organs housed along lymphatic system

function in surveillance of lymph

spread throughout system

clustered in inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions

filtration of lymph (resident macrophages actively remove debris and attack certain pathogens)

immune response activation (immune cells mount specialized response to certain pathogens within germinal centers

bean shaped

surrounded by capsule with invaginations (trabeculae) that separate organ into lobules

enters via afferent lymphatic vessels and drains through sinuses towards central medulla

macrophages and lymphocytes are suspended in reticular tissue to monitor lymph

exits via efferent vessels located at hilum

housed by outer cortex of lymph nodes

sites of immune response

largest lymphoid organ that functions on immune surveillance of blood

located on left side of abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm

served by splenic artery and vein

open circulation of blood, blood not contained within endothelium-bound vessels

site of RBC cleansing (resident macrophages remove old or damaged RBCs, pathogens, debris

connective tissue capsule with invaginations that partially separate organ

splenic artery brings blood to spleen, travels through white pulp, then red pulp, exits via splenic vein

site of t-cell education

proliferation and specialization of t-cells to recognize one specific antigen

larger in adolescent

shrink following puberty and is very small in the adult

maintains functions, although greatly diminished

partially encapsulated lymphoid organs found in oropharynx

exposed to oral cavity with oral mucosa on surface

capsule protects underlying tissues

deep crypts trap particulate matter, bacteria travel deeper into organ for removal by immune cells

lymphoid follicles mount immune responses against pathogens

invitation for bacteria is body's way of increasing memory of many different pathogens for protection later in life

named for location

lingual

palatine

pharyngeal (adenoids)

tubal

lymphoid aggregates found throughout GI and respiratory tracts 

collectively known as MALT

lack capsule and found withing underlying connective tissue of tracts (ex. Peyer's patches)

protects locations most susceptible to infection

disease caused by presence and proliferation of a pathogen (bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoans, other parasite)

defense mechanisms that are specialized for a specific pathogen

must be activated by the presence of specific antigen

skin and mucous membranes

first line of defense

Kupffer cells- liver

Langerhans cells- skin

microglia- CNA

group of lymphocytes that lyse open many types of tumor cells and virally infected cells

do not require antigen activation

body's general response to tissue injury

physical trauma, heat, chemical irritation, or infection

cardinal signs- redness, heat, swelling, pain

increased blood flow to damaged tissue

hyperemia

mediated by release of imflammatory mediators by damaged tissue, phagocytes, lymphocytes, mast cells, histamine, leukotrienes, cytokines

results in redness and heat

infusion of tissue with blood

histamine

leukotrienes

cytokines

helps dilute potentially harmful substances

brings large amounts of oxygen and nutrients for cell function (immune and repair)

allows entry of clotting proteins, which prevents spread of bacteria

leukocytosis

margination

diapedesis

chemotaxis

movement of neutrophils and other immune cells squeeze through capillary walla into site of damaged tissue

begin phagocytosis

accumulation of fluids and cell debris that results from severe inflammation

may be walled off within tissue to form abcess filled with pus, pathogens, immune cells

family of proteins released by some cells upon viral infection

communicates resistance to neighboring cells and stimulates immune response to fight infection

used clinically to fight some systemic infections (Hep. C)

group of some 20 or more plasma proteins that when activated provide a major mechanism for destroying foreign substances in the body

amplifies all aspects of imflammatory response

kills bacteria

involves a cascade in which complement proteins are activated in an orderly sequence

two routes of initiating activation

linked to immune system

triggered by antigen-antibody complex

depends on the binding of antibodies to invading organisms

amps all aspects of immune response

opsonization

MAC

coating bacterial cell membranes to attract macrophages and neutrophils for phagocytosis

greatly increases efficiency of phagocytosis

membrane attack complex 

(MAC)

can denature enzymes

increases metabolic rate which speeds up tissue repair

inhibits proliferation of some pathogens

educated in thymus

direct cell contact

two kinds- helper, cytotoxic

attack viral or cancer cells

educated in bone marrow

secrete antibodies

foreign substances on the surface of pathogens that can mobilize the immune cells

b and t cells recognize as nonself

antigenic determinants

or

epitope

small portion of antigen actually recognized by immune system

only certain part of an entire antigen are immunogenic

antibodies and activated lymphocytes bine to these antigenic determinants

taken just prior to and after birth

all things present will be recognized as self and everything else in the future as nonself which will activate immune response

cells which present foreign antigens to lymphocytes to stimulate their activation and proliferation

required for adequate activation

most common, abundant, and primary Ab of primary and secondary immune responses

crosses placenta and confers passive immunity

found in bodily secretions (tears, saliva, breast milk)

protective in mucous membranes

first Ab produces after antigen exposure

released by b cells during primary immune response

found in bodily secretions

binds mast cells causing release of histamine

attached to surface of b cell membrane

important in b cell activation

acts as antigen receptor

all antibodies form an antigen-antibody complex

antibodies themselves do not destroy antigen

direct attack by antibodies

prevents function of pathogen

can block mechanisms by which viruses or parasites enter host cells

copies of original lymphocytes

one cell able to recognize one antigen

first time and antigen is encountered

lag period 3-6 days after challenge

 once pathogen is destroyed, most clones die but several remain dormant

subsequent exposure to a previously encountered pathogen

memory cell reactivated

faster response

natural

active

any type of response of the body against an encountered antigen that results in some damage to host

Also known as hypersensitivites

4 types

begins in seconds after contact with allergen

first exposure has no response

b cells activated by allergen and secrete IgE which binds to mast cells

IgE and allergen complex cause degranulation of mast cell which releases histamine and other pro-inflammatory molecules

response to allergen that directly enters the blood

basophils and mast cells are enlisted throughout the body

systemic histamine releases may result in constriction on bronchioles, sudden vasodilation, fluid loss, hypertensive shock and death

Treatment- epinephrine

primarily a t cell response

prevention is attempted with immunosuppressant drugs

body begins to make antibodies against its own components

loss of the immune systems ability to distinguish self from nonself

most types destroy tissues but some may block or activate a cell membrane receptor

any congenital or aquired condition that results in failure of immune cells or immune proteins to behave properly

allow opportunistic infections that would otherwise not be a problem

group of genetic disorders that may result in b or t cells malfunction

fatal if untreated

treatment is bone marrow transplant

cripples the immune system by attacking helper t cells

caused by HIV

transmitted via body fluids

nose to bronchioles

warms air-higher temp=better diffusion

moistens air-higher humidity=better diffusion

filters air-role of epithelial membrane

goblet cells-secrete mucus

pseudostratified ciliated epithelia

respiratory zone structures

repiratory bronchioles to alveoli

functions in gas exchange

nose

nasal cavity

paranasal sinuses

pharynx

larynx

trachea

bronchial trees

lungs

nasal septum

nasal conchae

cribiform plate

drainage site for paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal ducts

sinuses in bones that surround the nasal cavity

line by nasal mucosa

4 pairs- frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary

epithelia-lined hollows

can fail to drain due to rhinitis

produce mucous to aid in respiratory functioning

inflammation due to infection or allergy can result in excessive mucous secretions leading to blockage

inflammation of nasal mucosa

pressure buildup leads to sinus headache

primary- reduce weight of skull

Secondary-provide resonance chambers for voice

extends from base of skull to C6

funnel shaped tube of skeletal muscle the connects to the nasal cavity and mouth superiorly

larynx and esophagus inferiorly

strictly air conduit/passageway

lined with psuedostratified columnar epithlium

closes during swallowing to prevent food from entering the nasal cavity

epiglottis and glottis prevent solids and liquids from entering trachea during swallowing

true vocal cords

vocal cords contain elastic fibers that vibrate with air passage to produce sounds

connecting muscles allow voluntary control of tension and thus control of the sound emitted

able to change tone and pitch

flexible and mobile tube extending from larynx into the thoracic cavity

walls supported by c-shaped hyaline cartilage rings with smooth muscles and elastic tissues linking filling in the gap of the C

lined with pseudostratified cilitated epithelium

23 orders of branching

conducting zone: bronchii

trachea divides into 2:

primary bronchi which enter each lung

secondary bronchi (one for each lobe)

bronchioles-smaller than 1 mm in diameter

terminal bronchioles mark entrance to alveolar ducts

alveolar sacs

alveoli

tissue walls of bronchi mimic that of trachea

as conducting tubes become smaller, structural changes occur

cartilage rings are replaced by irregular shaped cartilage plates

amount decreases and eventually disappears from smaller tubes

defined by presence of alveoli

respiratory bronchioles lead to alveolar ducts then to terminal clusters of alveolar sacs composed of alveoli

approx. 300 million alveoli that account for most of lungs' volume

major site of gas exchange

greatly increase surface area (aprox. 85 sq meters)

surrounded by rich capillary bed

paired, cone-shaped organs located in thoracic cavity

act as air passageway and chambers that are supported by an elastic connective stroma

each lung supplied by a primary bronchi

subdivided into lobes

superior and inferior lobes

two secondary bronchi

superior, middle, ad inferior lobes

three secondary bronchi

pressure of lungs is same as atmosphere

inspiration

expiration

an active process

requires muscle contraction

always less than the intrapulmonary or atmospheric pressure

gases travel from area of greater pressure to area of lower pressure

diaphragm- major muscle action

external intercostal muscles- slight elevation of ribs

stronger action of diaphragm and external intercostals

accessory muscles- sternocleidomastoids, pectoralis minors, scalenes

surface tension created by pleural fluid

positive pressure in lungs

atmospheric pressure acting externally on thorax

elasticity of lungs

surface tension within alveoli

collapsed lung

caused when intrapleural pressure equals intrapulmonary pressure

hole in visceral pleura leading to atelectasis

must close hole and draw air out of intrapleural space

normal expiration due to recoil of elastic components of lungs (passive process)

relaxation of diaphragm and intercostals deflates lung

friction in passageways (makes ventilation more strenuous)

bronchial constriction during asthma or other allergic reaction

tumors, local concentration of mucous or sites of localized infection

extremely sensitive to epinephrine of sympathetic response

the ease with which a lung is stretched

depends on elasticity of lungs and bony thorax

affected by several factors

reduction of natural resilience of lung (fibrosis-loss of flexibility)

blockage of small respiratory airways

increase of surface tension within alveoli

impaired flexibility of bony thorax- deformitied, ossification of costal cartilages, paralysis of intercostal muscles

strong attractive forces between water based liquids due to hydrogen bonding

draws liquid molecules closer together to decrease gas molecule interaction

resistance to increase in surface area of liquid

lipoprotein secreted by lung cells that acts as a detergent to decrease surface tension

not produced in some premature infants- infant respiratory distress syndrom (IRDS)

treated with forced ventilation

amount of air able to be inhaled over resting tidal volume

~3000 mL

amount of air able to be forced out beyond resting tidal

~1000 mL

air remaining in lung even after forced expiration

~1200 mL

air maintained in lungs prevent O2/CO2 concentration from fluctuating too much

total volume possible to exhale 

(IRV + TV + ERV + RV)

varies with age, sex, body size

structures that contain air which cannot function in gas exchange

must be subtracted from tidal volume to determine air volume that undergoes gas exchange

all airways prior to respiratory bronchioles

1 mL per lb of ideal body weight (150 mL)

alveoli

(gas exchange)

microscopic air sacs at the distal end of respiratory tree

make up bulk of lung mass

cells

(gas exchange)

alveolar macrophages

type 1 pneumocytes

type 2 pneumocytes

pulmonary endothelium

cuboid cells that secret surfactant

prevents surface tension thay would hold alveoli closed

type I pneumocyte

basement membrane

endothelial cells of capillaries

short distance for gas exchange

pressure of oxygen in blood is lower than in alveoli (diffuses into blood)

pressure of carbon dioxide is lower in alveoli (diffuses oout of blood)

iron-containing protein in RBCs

affinity is not strong and dependent on patial pressure of oxygen

easily released in tissues when pressure drops

temp, ph also affect affinity

more o2 is released during activity

inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues

results in cyanosis of skin and mucous membranes

has greater affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen

small amounts will displace oxygen on heme and deprive tissues of o2

dissolved in plasma (<10%)

bound to hemoglobin via non-covalent bonding (15-25%)

bicarbonate (70%)

medulla oblongata-controls depth and frequency of breathing

dorsal respiratory group

senses levels of o2, co2, h+ in arterial blood and responds accordingly

influence activity of medulla oblongata control centers

medullary ventral respiratory group

pontine respiratory centers

aortic and carotid bodies

• emotions, pain, other physiological stresses- hypothalamic influence on medulla
• voluntary control-temporary control over breathing, will be overcome by involuntary
• inflation reflex-over-stretching of lung tissue stimulates expiration, prevents lung damage
• irritant reflexes- stimulate bronchiole constriction and cough

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

COPD

group of disorders with similar symptoms

dypnea

coughing and chronic pulmonary infections

>80% have a history of smoking

2 common forms

chronic exposure to irritants leads to excessive mucous production in lower respiratory tract

pathogens thrive on mucous and lead to chronic inflammation

acute pulmonary obstruction due to constriction of bronchioles

usually allergen induced

infectious disease caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis

chronic infection that shows symptoms when immune system is weakened