DESCRIBE THE MAJOR GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN

Spain is in the Iberian Peninsula and has 50 provinces

It can also be divided into 17 autonomous regions

Its five main rivers are the Ebro, the Duero, The Tajo, the Guadiana, and the Guadalquivir

Spanish (Castilian) is the official language of the country, although in some parts of the country other languages are spoken

For example, Catalan in Catalonia, Galician in Galicia, and Basque in the Basque Country

The Spanish language originated in Spain

Two major groups of islands belong to Spain: the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands

The Balearic Islands are in the Mediterranean Sea

Their main islands are Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, and Formentera

The Canary Islands are in the Atlantic Ocean

The largest of the Canary Islands is Tenerife

Spain also has sovereignty over two small enclaves bordering Morocco, namely, Melilla, and Ceuta.

DESCRIBE THE HISTORICAL ROOTS OF MUSLIM INFLUENCE IN SPAIN

• In 711, Muslims from the north of Africa (sometimes referred to as Moors) invaded the Iberian Peninsla and conquered most of it
• What is known today as Spain was under Arab control until 1492
• Because Arab culture has had such a long history in Spain, its influence can still be easily seen today
• Many Spanish words that begin with al- have Arabic roots, for example:
• álgebra, aldea, alguacil, alférez, azulejo, alcoba, algodón, alcachofa
• The expression ojalá comes from the Arabic phrase "Should Allah will it"
• The Moors' reign on the peninsula also resulted in a lasting architectural legacy
• Many buildings from this era still survive
• Some of the most famous of those buildings are the mosque of Córdoba and the Alhambra

DESCRIBE THE ALHAMBRA AND ITS ARCHITECTURE

The Alhambra was built between the 9th and 13th century in Granada when the Moors occupied Spain

After the Spaniards recovered their land, the Catholic kings built their own palaces in the Alhambra; therefore, it has Islamic and Christian architectural elements

The Alhambra is a large complex containing several buildings

There are also courts, fountains, and gardens within its walls

It is famous for its decorations which are made from marble, stucco, and tile

Today it continues to be a very important tourist attraction

In 1984, it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site

DESCRIBE THE RECONQUISTA

The Reconquista refers to the attempt on the part of the Spaniards to recover their land from the control of the Muslims

The Muslims invaded Spain in 711

The Spaniards wanted to restore a united faith (Christianity, specifically Catholicism)

Almost immediately after the invasion, the Spaniards began the process of reconquering the country

The process took from 712 to 1492

In the 720s, the Christians recovered Asturias, their first major victory

The city of Granada was the last to be reconquered by the Spaniards in 1492 

DESCRIBE THE INFLUENCE OF ALFONSO X

Alfonso X or Alfonso el Sabio (the Wise) was king of Castilla-León from 1252 to 1284

Alfonso X is known for his decision to use Castilian (Castellano) as the official language of his kingdom

Castilian became more important than other languages or dialects spoken in the territory which began the linguistic unification of Spain

The language we call Spanish is still known as Castellano in much of the Spanish speaking world

Alfonso X also sponsored the writing of a number of literary and historical works in Castilian

The Primera crónica general de España, assembled in part from his court documents, is very useful in understanding medieval Spanish history

DESCRIBE THE HISTORICAL WORK ENTITLED El Cantar del Mío Cid

El Cantar del Mío Cid was anonymously written in the 12th century

It is in the style of a singing poem, a very popular form in medieval Spain

El Cantar del Mío Cid takes place during the Reconquista, when the Spanish Christians were trying to regain control of their land from the Arabs who had ruled the country since 711

The main character is Rodrigo Díaz Vivar, who is trying to recover his honor after being exiled by the king Alfonso VI

He takes part in the battle of Valencia, and after he recovers his honor, his two daughters marry the heirs of the house of Carrión, relatives of the king

These men mistreat the girls and almost kill them

The Cid fights against the bad husbands, and after he defeats them, his daughters marry the heirs of the house of Navarra  and Aragón

DESCRIBE THE INFLUENCE IF ISABEL AND FERNANDO AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE RECONQUISTA

• Isabel and Fernando, also called "The Catholic Monarchs", married in 1469
• Their marriage effectively unified Spain, as Fernando originally reigned over Aragón and Isabel over Castile, the two largest states in what today is modern Spain
• Under their reign, many other seminal events took place:  the Reconquista ended, the Inquisition was established, and Spain began to send explorers to unknown parts of the world
• With the unification of Castile and Aragón, the Reconquista moved forward
• In 1492, the Catholic forces of Isabel and Fernando took the city of Granada, an event which marked the end of the Reconquista
• They sought to establish a unification of religion as well, and eventually all Jews and Muslims who did not convert to Catholicism were expelled from Spain
• Those Jews and Muslims who did convert were watched carefully by the Inquisition

DESCRIBE THE INQUISITION

• The Inquisition was a court established during the reign of Fernando II of Aragón and Isabel I of Castile in 1478
• The purpose of the Inquisition was to discover and punish false converts and Christian heretics
• Because Jews and Muslims had been expelled from Spain, there existed the possibility of Jewish and Muslim believers who claimed conversion but had not truly converted
• The court also investigated crimes against the faith, including witchcraft, bigamy, blasphemy, and possession of forbidden books
• Inquisition courts used torture during their interrogations
• In Inquisition operated in Spain and Nueva España
• The Inquisition was abolished in 1834

DESCRIBE THE SPANISH ARMADA

The Spanish Armada was a strong fleet comprised of more than 130 ships and 20,000 sailors

At its strongest, it was considered invincible

But, in 1588, when King Felipe II sent it to England to try to destroy Queen Elizabeth I of England, the fleet was defeated

The defeat of the fleet is considered the historical point when the Spanish empire started to decline

Spain would never have the same political and economic importance in Europe as before the defeat

DESCRIBE THE INFLUENCE OF THE HOUSE OF THE BOURBONS

• The house of the Bourbons has had great influence in Europe
• Their reign in Spain began when Carlos II of Spain (a Hapsburg) designated Felipe V(Duke of Anjou), a Bourbon, as his successor
• The death of Carlos II and the subsequent crowning of Felipe V started the War of the Spanish Succession in 1701
• Other important Bourbons in Spain were Luis I, Fernando VI, Carlos III, and Carlos IV
• The Bourbons implemented reforms to consolidate power and strengthen the efficiency of the bureaucracy in Spain and their colonies in the New World
• These reforms were not popular in the colonies
• The dissatisfaction they created was one of the factors that led to the revolutionary movements in Latin America

DESCRIBE THE PURPOSE OF THE ROYAL SPANISH ACADEMY

The Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy) was created in 1713, and is responsible for regulating the Spanish language

Its motto is "Limpia, fija, y da esplendor" ("It cleans, sets, and gives splendor")

The Academy concentrates on linguistic planning to provide linguistic agreement and a common standard among all Spanish speaking regions

It has a formal procedure to incorporate new words, and it periodically publishes dictionaries and grammars

The academy has sometimes been criticized as too conservative and slow to react to change

It is located in Madrid and is affiliated with other national language academies in 21 Spanish speaking countries

Its website is www.rae.es

DESCRIBE THE WORK KNOWN AS LA CELESTINA (1499)

• La Celestina, also known as La Tragicomedia de Calisto y Melibea, was written by Fernando de Rojas in 1499
• Many consider La Celestina the first Spanish novel,  although it is not strictly a novel as it is written as a dialogue between the characters
• Like a work of theater, the piece is divided into acts
• It is representational of the Spanish Renaissance
• Rather than focus on divine themes, it bears similarity to Italian humanist comedies
• The work also demonstrates revived attention to ancient Roman comedies

DISCUSS THE PERIOD KNOWN AS EL SIGLO DE ORO

El Siglo de Oro, or "the Golden Century" refers to a flourishing of Spanish art, literature, and music that took place under the reign of the Hapsburgs (who were great supporters of the arts) in the 1500s and 1600s

During this time period, the Spanish arts were influenced by the art being produced n the rest of Europe but also began to establish their own styles

The artists and works of art discussed in the following flashcards are considered part of El Siglo de Oro

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF GARCILASO DE LA VEGA (1501-1536)

GARCILASO DE LA VEGA is the poet most credited with bringing Italian poetry forms, such as sonnets and elegies to Spain, and adapting them to the Spanish language, as well as establishing traditional Spanish forms of poetry such as estancias and liras

As such, he had a great impact on Spanish poetry and subsequent Spanish poets

His work deals with themes of love and the meaning of life, although religion as a theme is notably absent

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF EL GRECO (1541-1614)

Born Domenikos Theotokopoulos in Greece, El Greco studied art with the Renaissance masters in Italy, but returned to Spain and developed a very unique, expressionistic style of painting

His works are marked by bold brushstrokes and bright colors, more emotional than many works of his time

Not always understood or appreciated in his lifetime, he was recognized in the 20th century as one of the main precursors of impressionism and cubism

He painted many altarpieces and other works with religious themes, as well as portraits

He also did some sculpture

Some of his most well known works are The Assumption of the Virgin, The Opening of the Fifth Seal, and his landscapes titled Toledo

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA (1547-1616)

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra is most well known for his novel, El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha, which was published in two parts - the first one in 1605 and the second one in 1615

In Don Quijote de la Mancha, Cervantes recounts the adventures of Alonso Quijano, an old man who goes crazy after reading too many chivalric novels

In his altered state, he believes he is Don Quijote de la Mancha, a traveling knight

Cervantes narrates Don Quijote's adventures and his search for love

The most famous scene is when Alonso fights against windmills, believing they are giants

The book is considered a parody of the chivalric books of the times

In addition to Don Quijote de la Mancha, Cervantes wrote: La galatea, Novelas ejemplares, Los trabajos de Persiles y Segismunda

The above-mentioned works were never as popular as Don Quijote

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF Félix Lope de Vega y Carpio (1562-1635)

Félix Lope de Vega was a prolific Spanish writer who did much to shape Spanish literary tradition

He produced works in every genre of his time: novels, poetry (epic, religious, and lyric), and works for the theatre

He prescribed the form of the Spanish 3-act comedy and wrote his characters with a new level of depth

His plays (of which there were more than 1500) dealt with themes as wide-ranging as religious doctrine, history and legends, and social conditions of the day

Some of his most famous comedies (such as Fuenteovejuna and El mejor alcalde el rey) describe the unjust uses of power among the nobility in Spain

In addition to revolutionizing theater, Lope de Vega codified many traditional Spanish poem forms

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF FRANCISCO DE QUEVEDO Y VILLEGAS (1580-1645)

        Quevedo was one of the most prolific poets of the Siglo de Oro

• He was highly involved in politics - he was alternately a court writer or in exile for much of his life and died in jail
• His poetry is known for its conceptismo, or brief but deep style, in contrast to the more flowery poetry of many of his peers
• His sonnets are perhaps most representative of his style and skill as a poet
• His work was, at times, unsympathetic to the excesses of the nobility for whom he wrote, and he also mocked many subgroups in Spanish society in his writings
• In addition to poetry, he is known for his satirical works such as Sueños y discursos                        

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF DIEGO VELáZQUEZ (1599-1660)

Diego Velázquez was a Spanish painter of the 17th century.

He was born in Seville, and moved to Madrid where he became the court painter for King Philip IV

He spent time in Italy (which greatly influenced his style) but returned to Madrid, where he lived until his death

He was mainly a portraitist, producing historical and cultural depictions of royalty, notables, and commoners

His most famous painting is Las Meninas, a baroque portrayal of the Infanta Margarita, one of the daughters of the king, surrounded by maids of honor and other members of the court

It now is in the Museo del Prado in Madrid

Impressionists and realists of the 19th century as well as modern painters such as Picasso and Dalí have been influenced by Velázquez and use his art as a model for their work

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF BARTOLOMé ESTEBAN MURILLO (1618-1682)

Murillo was a Spanish painter who studied under Spanish masters Castillo and Zurbarán, eventually developing a soft, muted style that appealed to the ruling classes and the Catholic church

He completed several works for the monastery and cathedral in Seville and was one of the founders of the Academia de Bellas Artes

While he completed many religiously-themed works (the most famous of which may be his Assumption of the Virgin, he is also known for his paintings of children in everyday life and his portraiture

DESCRIBE THE ART OF ZARZUELA

• The zarzuela is a particular work of performing art that mixes theater and music
• In the zarzuelas singing and speaking take turns
• The zarzuela originated in Spain in the 17th century, and the pieces were very popular with the kings and other members of the privileged class
• In Spain, its popularity started to decline with the arrival of opera

Nevertheless, zarzuelas kept on being popular in other countries such as Cuba

In the 19th and 20th century, they became popular again in Spain

The most famous composers of zarzuelas are Amadeo Vives, Federico Chueca, José Serrano, and Jacinto Guerrero

DISCUSS THE PENINSULAR WAR AND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE

From  1807-1814, the Peninsular War and the Spanish War for Independence took place

The Peninsular War, Napoleon's attempt to take over the Iberian Peninsula, began when Spain and France attacked Portugal together in 1807

It morphed into the Spanish War for Independence when France abandoned Spain as an ally and sought to occupy it instead

The people of Madrid pushed back in the famous Dos de mayo uprising on May 2, 1808, and the war between the two empires lasted for 6 more years before the French fully withdrew from Spain

DISCUSS EARLY INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS IN LATIN AMERICA AND ITS EFFECTS ON SPAIN

• Spain's colonies took advantage of the political and social turmoil on the continent during the Peninsular War
• Fueled by the rising democratic sentiment in the western world, the independence movements across Latin America took place during the early 19th century (1810-1833)
• Spain's colonies in Central and South America revolted against Spanish rule, fought for, and won their independence
• The effective end of this global empire had a profound destabilizing effect on Spain in conjunction with the wars and unrest on the peninsula
• Spain had been a leader in trade and the world economy, but the loss of many of its colonies resulted in a slower and more isolated economy for Spain 

DESCRIBE THE INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS IN CUBA, PUERTO RICO, AND THE PHILIPPINES

• In the second half of the 19th century, Spain's colonies in the Indies also declared their independence from Spain
• These independence movements were eventually supported by the United States in the Spanish-American War in 1898
• The USA involved themselves after rumors of Spanish-enacted atrocities in the colonies and the sinking of the USS Maine in the Havana harbor
• The loss of its last colonies affected Spain, not as much economically, but rather in its self-conception, since at this point, Spain effectively lost its status as an empire and world power
• The writings of the Generation of '98 (in the flash cards after this one) were influenced by this historical event

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF FRANCISCO GOYA (1746-1828)

• Francisco Goya was a prominent Spanish painter and printmaker
• His career and style spanned many styles: baroque, rococo, and then neoclassicism and expressionism
• He worked in the Real Fábrica de Tapices de Madrid designing tapestries and was later appointed court painter
• He was a great influence for modern artists as he was one of the first artists to paint what he wanted and not what the king or church told him to paint
• His portraits are known for their realism rather than their flattery
• Many of his most famous works are historical or political in nature
• His piece El tres de mayo 1808 shows the execution of Spanish soldiers by the French army
• His sets of etchings Los desastres de la guerra and Los caprichos provide social commentary on the war between France and Spain and many of the social ills in Spain at the time

DESCRIBE THE ARTISTIC PERIOD KNOWN AS EL ROMANTICISMO AND THE WORKS OF GUSTAVO ADOLFO BéCQUER (1836-1870)

• In the first half of the 1800s, Romanticism held sway in the literature of Spain
• It consisted of a rejection of neoclassicism and of conservative social order and a turn toward expressing emotion
• Romantic authors dealt with grand, sweeping themes in a mystical and flourishing manner
• Romanticism was quickly replaced with Realism in Spain

Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (1836-1870)

• Becquer's writing bridges the gap between Romanticism and modern poetry in Spain
• His Rimas, written in free verse, deals with themes of love and life
• His most famous Rima is known for the line "Poesía...eres tú"
• His collection of prose pieces, Leyendas, are exemplary of Romantic prose, dealing with myth, love, life, and death in a mystical, lyrical style

DESCRIBE THE ARTISTIC PERIOD KNOWN AS EL REALISMO

• Realism was the prevailing literary style in Spain during the second half of the 19th century
• Realist authors wrote about common themes and people rather than the grandiose ideas dealt with in Romanticism
• In realism, styles of language employed by different classes and regions were included, even if they were not "correct"
• Realist authors often had strong feelings about the social issues of their day and used their writings to explore, praise, and condemn the way these problems were handled in Spain
• Two famous Realist authors are discussed in the next cards

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF BENITO PéREZ GALDóS (1843-1920)

• Benito Pérez Galdós was a Spanish author who wrote realist novels, dramas, and chronicles
• He was heavily influenced by the work of Dickens in England and Balzac in France
• His characters came from all classes and regions of Spain
• His greatest project was Episodios nacionales - a set of 46 novels that could best be described as historical fiction
• In them, Galdós explores the 19th century history of Spain through the eyes of several different characters
• Some of the stand out novels from this body of work include:  Doña Perfecta, Fortunata y Jacinta, and Misericordia

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF EMILIA PARDO BAZáN (1852-1921)

• Emilia Pardo Bazán, also known as the Countess, was a very important novelist from the last decades of the 19th century
• She tried to introduce naturalism in Spain, but rejected the determinism that was at the time connected to naturalism
• She also took part in the women's liberation movement of her day
• Pardo Bazán wrote stories, novels, and poetry, as well as social studies and commentaries, many of which were published in periodicals
• Most of her works deal with the life and customs of Galicia, and the author uses her characters and situations to study the human condition
• She wrote more than 500 pieces; the best known are Los pasos de Ulloa, La madre naturaleza, Cuentos de la tierra, and La tribuna

DESCRIBE LA GENERACIóN DEL 98

• The generation of 98 was a group of Spanish writers, essayists, and poets who were affected by the moral, political, and social crises in Spain in the last decades of the 19th century
• Spain struggled to regain stability after the Napoleonic wars, and the 19th century was marked by rapid, sometimes violent changes from one regime to another
• As mentioned above, Spain lost its colonial holdings during this time as well
• These authors reacted to what they saw as overbearing, unacademic conservatism in the arts and academia in Spain
• Miguel de Unamuno, Antonio Machado, and Pío Baroja are well known writers from this group

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF MIGUEL DE UNAMUNO (1864-1936)

• Miguel de Unamuno was an author from the Generation of 98
• He was a philosopher and professor who was deeply engaged in the intellectual debates of the day
• In his best known essay, Del sentimiento trágico de la vida, Unamuno explores what it meant and what it should mean to be a Spaniard
• His best known novels are Paz en la guerra, Niebla, Abel Sánchez, La tía Tula, and San Manuel Bueno, mártir

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF ANTONIO GAUDí (1852-1926)

• Antonio Gaudí is arguably Spain's most well known architect
• His work takes from many architectural traditions (Gothic, Romantic, Modern, Oriental) as well as from patterns he observed in nature, creating a very unique style
• His celebrated Basilica de la Sagrada Familia is still under construction today in Barcelona
• Other works, primarily located in Barcelona, include the Park Güell, The Casa Milá, and the Casa Batlló, all of which have been designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites

DESCRIBE LA GENERACIóN DEL 27

• The generation of 27 was a group of Spanish poets who rose to prominence before the Spanish Civil War
• While their poetry represents diverse styles, they tended to employ free verse and sought to bridge the gap between Spanish folk tradition, classical poetry, and the up and coming styles of poetry in the rest of Europe
• Many of them opposed Franco and were killed, jailed, or exiled during or after the Spanish Civil War
• their work influenced writers in Latin America (notably Pablo Neruda and Jorge Luis Borges) and artists (Salvador Dalí identified with the group as well)

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF JUAN GRIS (1887-1927)

• Born in Madrid, Gris spent most of his adult life and career as an artist in Paris
• His paintings and collages were influenced by  the cubism of Picasso and Braque and by the bright colors of Matisse
• His version of cubism is more "pure" or mathematical than that of Picasso
• Some of his most famous works include Portrait of Picasso and his many still lifes (e.g., Violin and Guitar, Bottle of Rum and a Newspaper)

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF FEDERICO García LORCA (1898-1936)

• Federico García Lorca, perhaps the most famous of the Generación de '27, wrote poetry and works for theatre and was also a musician
• In his works, García Lorca offers a separate world with creations that oscillate between stylized reality and surreal fantasy
• Among his dramas are Bodas de sangre, Yerma, and La casa de Bernarda Alba
• His well known collections of poetry include Libro de poemas, Canciones, Romancero Gitano, Poema del cante jondo, and Poeta en Nueva York
• He lived for a while in New York and studied English at the Columbia University
• He returned to Spain in 1930
• In 1936, García Lorca was assassinated a few days after the Spanish Civil War started

DISCUSS THE INFLUENCE OF GENERAL FRANCISCO FRANCO (1892-1975)

• In 1934, General Francisco Franco led a campaign against the Republican government which had abolished the monarchy, thereby dividing Spain into two factions:  the Franquistas or Nationalists and the Republicans or Loyalists
• Franco and his faction defeated the Republicans and established an absolute dictatorship
• Under Franco, the Catholic Church, the army, and the state were aligned
• The dictatorship was defined by its oppression, lack of freedom, fidelity to the Catholic Church, and support from the Spanish financial oligarchy
• Political prisoners included scientists, artists, writers, teachers, and professors
• Franco continued as dictator until his death in 1975

DISCUSS THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR (1936-1939)

• The Spanish Civil War was between the Nationalists, under the leadership of General Franco, and the Republicans, composed of anarchists, communists, and socialists, and anyone who opposed Franco
• The Nationalists had the support of the fascist governments in Europe - Italy and Germany
• The Republicans were supported by Mexico and the Soviet Union
• The war divided communities, families, and friends
• Many atrocities against civilians were committed
• One of the most well known of these is the bombing of the city of Guernica by the German Luftwaffe
• The war ended on April , 1939, shortly after the Nationalists took over Madrid
• Franco then established his dictatorship

DESCRIBE SPAIN UNDER FRANCO

• Spain was under the dictatorship of Franco until his death in 1975
• His rule was marked by religious and cultural conservatism and autocratic decision making
• He sought to homogenize Spain linguistically and culturally and to keep Spain free from foreign influence, both economic and cultural
• Some of the specific policies that demonstrated these goals included the permiso marital, which severely limited the legal and economic rights of women, the ban of the public use of regional languages like Catalan and Euskara (the Basque language), and heavy reliance on internal production rather than free trade

DESCRIBE EUSKADI TA ASKATASUNA (ETA) and its effect in the Basque Country

• ETA, or Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (Basque Country and Freedom), was an armed leftist group that was founded in 1959, seeking to gain autonomy from Spain for the Basque Country
• The Basque Country is located in the south of France and the north of Spain and has traditionally resisted assimilation into the larger culture, partially due to the geographic isolation provided by the Pyrenees mountain range and partially due to strong cultural identity
• The Basque language is not related to any known European language
• While Spain has traditionally allowed for some regional and linguistic self-determination, under Franco this was not the case
• ETA was formed to push back against Franco's attempt to homogenize the language and culture of the region
• The group employed terrorist attacks to accomplish their goal and only recently (2018) announced their dissolution

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF PABLO PICASSO (1881-1973)

• Pablo Ruiz Picasso was a Spanish painter
• Born in Málaga, he spent most of his life in Madrid, Barcelona, and Paris
• He was inspired by the earlier ground-breaking Spanish painters El Greco and Francisco Goya
• Picasso is arguably the most influential artist of the 20th century
• Together with Juan Gris, he developed and defined Cubism
• Many of his works have political inspiration - Picasso hated the fascist government of Franco
• He was a prolific artist and many of his works are in museums all over the world today
• His best known works include Guernica (commemorating the bombing during the Civil Wat) and Les Demoiselles d'Avignon

DESCRIBE POST-FRANCO SPAIN

• After Franco's death in 1975, several leaders ruled for a short amount of time
• After a few years of political turmoil, a constitutional democracy was set up and has been successfully maintained since 1982
• A cultural movement, often referred to as La Movida, occurred after Franco's death as well - the religious and social conservatism that Franco had kept in place was thrown off, and Spaniards reveled in their new freedom of expression on many fronts (art/music, speech, breaking moral taboos, etc.)

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF JOAN Miró (1893-1983)

• Joan Miró was a Spanish painter influenced by surrealism and Dada, but whose work resists classification
• His early works were influenced by Cézanne and then Kandinsky
• Miró's works contain more experimental techniques and modern representation(as opposed to classical representation) than his peer Dalí's
• He was a sculptor as well as a painter
• Some of his best known works are the sculpture Pájaro lunar and the paintings Carnaval de Arlequín and Granja

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF SALVADOR DALí (1904-1989)

• Salvador Dalí was a Spanish surrealist painter
• He began his career as a cubist but soon, under the influence of other artists in Paris, began to explore surrealism
• His work is marked by classical technique as well as his wildly imaginative images
• Among his best known pieces are La cesta del pan, El hombre invisible, and La persistencia de la memoria

DESCRIBE THE ORIGINS OF AND FAMOUS ACTORS WITHIN SPANISH CINEMA

• The successful history of Spanish cinema started in the 1930s with Luis Buñuel, who was the first Spanish director to be recognized internationally through such films as Belle de Jour, El discreto encanto de la burguesía, and Ese oscuro objecto del deseo
• He was associated with the surrealist movement and worked in Spain, France, Mexico, and the United States
• Carlos Saura (La Madriguera, Cría Cuervos, Sweet Hours) was another Spanish director known globally
• Because of the censorship of the Franco era, however, it was difficult for Spanish filmmakers
• to attract international attention for many decades
• Today, Pedro Almodóvar's works (Mujeres al borde de un ataque de nervios, Todo acerca de mi madre, Volver) are all well known internationally and have made household names of some of the actors like: Antonio Banderas, Penélope Cruz who have worked in his films

DESCRIBE THE HSITORICAL TRENDS OF SPANISH ARCHITECTURE

• Spanish architecture is varied and reflects its history
• It had a significant Roman influence from it was part of the Roman Empire
• It then incorporated, especially in Andalucia, Arab features while under the Moors' domination
• After the Reconquista, Romanesque and gothic elements were integrated with the Arab styles, sometimes in the same buildings
• The 20th century brought Modernism to architecture, with Antoni Gaudí and Barcelona as its center
• Contemporary Spanish architects are internationally recognized, among them Rafael Moneo - Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles, Wellesley College in Massachusetts, Audrey Jones Beck building in Houston, Texas)
• Santiago Calatrava is another with his Milwaukee Art Museum in Wisconsin, Siutat de les Arts i les Ciencies in Valencia, Spain, and Turning Torso building in Malmo, Sweden

DESCRIBE THE SPANISH USE OF METRIC AND IMPERIAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

• Spanish speaking countries primarily use the metric system for measurements
• Although some units such as those of time (seconds/segundos, hours/horas, days/días, etc.)
• and angles (degrees/grados) are the same, other units are different
• For longitude and distances, the metric system uses centimeters (centímetros), meters (metros), and kilometers (kilómetros), while the imperial system uses inches (pulgadas), feet (pies), yards (yardas), and miles (millas).
• Gram (gramo), kilogram (kilogramo), and ton (tonelada) will be the units used in the metric system for weight; the imperial units are ounce (onza), pound (libra), and ton (tonelada).
• When it comes to volume, the metric system uses milliliter (mililitro), centiliter (centilitro), and liter (litro), while the imperial system uses ounce (onza), cup (taza), quarter (cuarto), and gallon (galón)
• Units in both systems are not directly equivalent and have to be converted from one system to another according to their particular relationship
• For example, 1 pound is 454 grams, 1 inch equals 2.54 centimeters, and 1 gallon is 3.785 liters

DESCRIBE THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC STATE OF SPAIN TODAY

• Today, Spain is a democracy under a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a hereditary monarchy and a bicameral parliament
• It is a member of the European Union and its currency is the euro
• Spain's population was estimated at 47 million in 2018, and its capital is Madrid
• Other important cities include Barcelona, Bilbao, Valencia, Seville, and Zaragoza
• Due to Spain's climate, rich historic and cultural quality, and geographic position, tourism has become one of the main sources of income for the country
• Spain is also one of the most important developers and producers of renewable energy, in particular solar power

DESCRIBE THE RELIGIOUS CULTURAL PRACTICES WITHIN SPAIN

• The Catholic church has played a large role in the history of Spain
• It served as one of the forces that unified several medieval states into modern Spain
• The Inquisition is an example of the social and political power that the Catholic church possessed in Spain's early history
• More recently the Church aligned itself with Franco and as a result held great sway over the cultural and moral order during Franco's reign
• While the Catholic church is still the majority religion in Spain, many who identify as Catholic could be described as cultural adherents rather than religious
• Secularization is strong in Spain, with a large percentage identifying as atheistic, agnostic, or as non-practicing Catholics

DESCRIBE COMMON PRACTICES IN FAMILY AND LIFESTYLE WITHIN SPAIN

• Spain is a diverse country with many different practices in regard to family and lifestyle
• Bearing this in mind, following are some generalizations about Spanish culture:
• Family is highly valued - even the noon meal is often eaten at home with family
• Due in part to the valuing of family and partially to the economic woes in the early 2000s, many young people live with their immediate family into their 20s and 30s if they have not married
• In the southern and rural parts of the country, a siesta, or afternoon nap is still traditional, and stores and restaurants may even close for a period in the afternoon
• Dressing well is important - the standards for casual and form are a bit elevated in Spain when compared to the USA

DESCRIBE COMMON FESTIVALS AND TRADITIONS WITHIN SPAIN

• Spain has many famous traditional festivals
• La corrida, or the running of the bulls in Pamplona for the celebration of San Fermin, is perhaps the best known of these
• Throughout Spain, Holy Week, or Semana Santa is celebrated with parades and a variety of religious festivals
• Carnaval is similar to the French-American celebration of Mardi Gras and also takes place nationwide
• Local traditions include the Fallas in Valencia (parade of large paper floats that are set on fire at the end), the Tomatina(everyone throws tomatoes at each other), also in Valencia, and the Feria in Seville
• Spain is also the location of a famous pilgrimage, the Camino de Santiago de Compostela

DESCRIBE THE HISTORY OF LINGUISTIC UNITY IN SPAIN

•  Throughout Spain's history, there has been a debate about the importance of linguistic unity versus preserving the linguistic heritage of the autonomous communities
• What we call "Spanish" is technically castellano - descended from the language of Castile
• In several regions, a local language is still spoken instead of or in addition to Castellano
• Catalán, Euskara, and Gallego are the languages with the largest groups of speakers
• The debate about how to preserve and use these languages is ongoing
• Policies such as what language of instruction should be used in school and which languages to use in public spaces (on signs, for example) and in local government are still being formed
• The fight for linguistic self-determination is often linked to a fight for political self-determination (notably in the case of the Basques), which makes language choice a delicate issue for many Spaniards

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF MEXICO

• The official name of Mexico is Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos
• The country is in North America, and borders with the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the south
• Its territory is three times the size of Texas
• The capital is Ciudad de México, and the currency is the Mexican peso
• In Pre-Colombian times, it was inhabited by the Aztecs in the region's center, the Mayans in the Yucatán in the south, and the Chichimecas in the central area and the north
• After the arrival of the Spaniards, the Viceroyalty of Nueva España was established
• Hernán Cortés presided as Capitan General over the territory he had conquered
• In 1821, Mexico declared its independence
• Agriculture, industry, mining, and tourism are strong areas of Mexican economy

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE ANTILLES

• The Antilles (also known as the West Indies) is the archipelago in the Caribbean Sea between North and South America
• The Greater Antilles consists of Cuba, Hispaniola (the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and the Cayman Islands
• The Lesser Antilles are the islands on the east of the Caribbean Sea and include Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Barbados, Granada, Trinidad, and others
• In Pre-Colombian times, they were inhabited by the Arawak and the Caribs(indigenous peoples) and they were the first lands Colón put his foot on in 1492
• Sugar production flourished in the Antilles after European colonization, and, with it, slavery
• The islands are very diverse ethnically, and due to the importation of slaves, the influence of African culture is clearly seen 

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

• Dominican Republic is on the island of Hispaniola, which it shares with Haiti
• The capital is Santo Domingo, and the currency is the Dominican peso
• The island was named by Colón when he landed there in 1492
• In Pre-Colombian times, it was inhabited by the Taíno (an Arawak people group)
• Santo Domingo was founded by the Spanish in 1496 and was the first permanent European settlement in the New World
• The country passed between Spanish and French rule until declaring independence in 1821
• The Dominican Republic has had a tumultuous political history, with many dictators and military leaders, Trujillo being perhaps the most infamous
• The economy of the Dominican Republic is based on agriculture, mainly sugar cane

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF CUBA

• Cuba is the largest island of the Greater Antilles
• It is to the south of Florida in the United States and to the west of the Bahamas
• The capital is Havana, and the currency is the peso
• The most important Indian groups that inhabited the island were the Taíno and the Guanajatabey
• In 1511, Diego Velásquez de Cuéllar (not the painter) began the conquest of the island
• Cuba was under Spanish rule until 1898(one of the last Spanish holdings in the Americas)
• In 1952, Fulgencio Batista established a dictatorship and in 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew him and took control of the country
• Under Castro, Cuba had a close relationship with the Soviet Union

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF PUERTO RICO

• Puerto Rico is one of the islands of the Greater Antilles
• It is southeast of the United States, and it is an unincorporated territory of the United States
• The capital is San Juan, and the currency is the dollar
• In Pre-Colombian times, it was inhabited by the Arawak people
• In 1493, in his second trip to the New World, Cristobal Colón explored the island
• He named it San Juan Bautista
• Juan Ponce de León lead the conquest of the island, and it was under Spanish control until 1897, when it sought autonomy from Spain
• In 1898, it was occupied by the army of the United States
• In 1899, it became part of the United States after the Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish-American War
• In 1952, it was designated a commonwealth of the United States

DESCRIBE THE GENERAL GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL AMERICA

• Central America is between North America and South America
• It begins in the Tehuantepec Isthmus in Mexico and continues down to Panama
• The Spanish speaking countries in Central America are: Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama
• In colonial times, this area was known as the Capitanía General de Guatemala
• From 1823-1838, all these countries belonged to the Provincias Unidas de Centroamérica, but later became independent nations
• The Panama Canal, which connects the Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean, goes through the Isthmus of Panama in the south of the region

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF GUATEMALA

• Guatemala is to the south of Mexico
• The capital is Ciudad de Guatemala and the currency is the quetzal
• The Maya inhabited the area in Pre-Colombian times
• In 1523, Pedro de Alvarado began the Spanish conquest of the territory and quickly created a colony
• Then the Capitanía General de Guatemala was formed, which had jurisdiction over all of Central America
• In 1821 the states in the captaincy general declared their independence from Spain, and during the period from 1821 to 1838, Guatemala and the other Central American republics were part of the Provincias Unidas de Centroamérica
• In 1839, Guatemala officially became its own country
• Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy of Guatemala, especially coffee, sugar cane, and bananas

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF EL SALVADOR

• El Salvador is the smallest country in Central America
• It is to the south of Guatemala and the west of Honduras
• The currency is the Salvadoran colón
• In Pre-Colombian times, it was inhabited by the Mayans, specifically the Pipils
• In 1524, Pedro de Alvarado conquered the territory and founded San Salvador, today's capital
• In 1824, it incorporated with the Provincias Unidas de Centroamérica and, in 1841, it declared its independence as a nation
• El Salvador suffered a civil war between the leftist guerillas and the right-wing military from 1977 to 1979
• A presidential regime was established in 1983
• Coffee is the main agricultural product of El Salvador

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF HONDURAS

• Honduras is a country in Central America between Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua
• The capital is Tegucigalpa, and the currency is the lempira
• In Pre-Colombian times, it was inhabited by the Mayans
• By 1524, Cortés and Alvarado were founding settlements in the region
• In 1824, it incorporated into the Provincias Unidas de Centroamérica
• In 1838, it seceded and became independent, although its neighbors have frequently interfered in its political affairs
• Bananas are the main export of modern Honduras
• Coffee, corn, and tobacco are also exported

DESCRIBE THER GEOGRAPHY OF NICARAGUA

• Nicaragua is to the southwest of Honduras and El Salvador
• It borders with Costa Rica in the south
• the capital is Managua and its currency is the córdoba
• In Pre-Colombian times, it was inhabited by many Indian groups, including the Nahua
• In 1522, Gil González de Avila
•  discovered the territory
• In 1824, it integrated with the Provincias Unidas de Centroamérica
• In 1838, it declared its independence, the first state to do so
• In the nineteenth century, the USA was interested in creating a canal in Nicaragua
• This interest led to a long history of US intervention in Nicaraguan politics
• Agriculture is the most important part of its economy
• It exports cotton, coffee, sugar, and bananas

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF COSTA RICA

• Costa Rica is located between Nicaragua and Panama in Central America
• The capital is San José and the currency is the Costa Rican colón
• In Pre-Colombian times, it was the contact area between the Mesoamerican cultures of the south of Central America and those in the north of South America
• The Spaniards did not establish a permanent settlement in what is today Costa Rica until 1563
• In 1823, Costa Rica was incorporated to the Provincias Unidas de Centroamérica and in 1848, it declared its independence
• Costa Rica has been one of the most stable and democratic countries in Latin America
• The economy of Costa Rica is based mainly in agriculture and fishing
• Coffee, bananas, pineapple, and cocoa are exported

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF PANAMA

• Panama is to the south of the countries of Central America and to the north of Colombia
• The capital is Ciudad de Panamá, and the currency is the balboa
• In Pre-Colombian times, it was inhabited by the Chocó, the Chibcha, and the Caribe
• In 1501, Panama was discovered by Rodrigo de Bastidas y Colón, and Vasco Nuñez de Balboa established the first colony in 1510
• In 1513, he used the isthmus to sail to the Pacific
• The territory was incorporated to the Viceroyalty of Peru and Nueva Granada
• In 1821, it became part of Colombia
• Because of its interest in creating the Panama Canal, the United States was a key player in Panamanian independence from Colombia, achieved in 1903
• The USA settled the Hay-Bunau-Varilla treaty with the new Panamanian republic, which gave the USA jurisdiction  over the zone where the canal was to be built
• The Panama Canal is a strategic holding both economically and militarily
• After unrest in the 1970s, the USA agreed to gradually hand over control of the canal to Panamá

DESCRIBE THE GENERAL GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AMERICA

• South America, known in Spanish as Suramérica or Sudamérica, begins in Colombia and includes Venezuela, Ecuador, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Child, and Argentina
• Some well known geographical features are the Amazon River, the longest in the world (in Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador), and the mountain range of the Andes, which runs from the north of the continent to the south

• DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF COLOMBIA
• Colombia is in South America, south of the Isthmus of Panama, and is the country where South America begins
• It borders on Venezuela and the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Pacific Ocean on the northeast, Ecuador and Peru on the southwest, and Brazil on the southeast
• The Andes run through the country
• The capital is Bogotá; the currency is the Colombian peso
• In Pre-Colombian times, the Chibchas, the Musicas, and the Quechuas inhabited the area
• In 1501, Rodrigo de Bastidas explored the region
• Between 1524 and 1534, the Spaniards colonized the area and called it Nueva Granada
• In 1821, after many battles and changes in government, Colombia, together with Ecuador and Venezuela, was organized under the name República de la Gran Colombia
• In 1830, after the secession of Ecuador and Venezuela as independent nations, the territory that is today Colombia also became its own republic
• It was known as Nueva Granada until 1863, when its name changed to the United States of Colombia
• In the last half of the 20th century, Colombia has seen much violence from the leftist and rightist guerilla groups (FARC being the most well known)
• The drug trade allowed these groups to find funding more easily
• The Colombian economy is chiefly agricultural
• Most important exports are: coffee, corn, rice, sugar, cotton, and bananas
• Oil is also a leading import, as are illegal drugs such as cocaine

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF ECUADOR

• Ecuador is in South America, to the south of Colombia and to the north of Peru
• The Pacific Ocean is to its west
• The capital of the country is Quito; the currency is the U.S. dollar
• In Pre-Colombian times, several Indian tribes inhabited the area but were conquered by the Incas
• The center of the Incan empire was is what is today the city of Quito
• In 1527, Ecuador was discovered by the Spaniards, and in 1533 it was conquered by Sebastián de Benalcázar
• In 1563, the Audiencia of Quito was founded, but in the 17th century the area was incorporated to the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada
• After several battles and changes in government during the 18th and 19th century, it declared its independence from Spain
• The economy of Ecuador is based on agriculture and service
• The country is the world's largest exporter of bananas
• Oil and its products are also important for the economy of Ecuador

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF VENEZUELA

• Venezuela is in South American, north of Brazil and east of Colombia
• Guyana is to its east and the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean are to its north
• The capital is Caracas; the currency is the bolivar
• The Arawaks and the Caribs inhabited the area in Pre-Colombian times
• Venezuela was discovered in the expeditions of Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci
• Caracas was founded in 1567, and the area became important due to its exports of cocoa
• It was part of the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada, and the Audiencia de Caracas was formed in 1786
• In 1811, it declared its independence
• Simón Bolivar,
•  the South American liberator was born in Venezuela
• Venezuela has some of the worlds' largest oil reserves, a fact which has driven much of the politics in Venezuela
• In the 21st century, Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez attracted much attention with his attempts toward socialism and nationalism
• The economy of Venezuela primarily exports oil and its products

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF URUGUAY

• Uruguay is in South America between Argentina and Brazil, in the area of the Río de la Plata
• The capital is Montevideo; the currency is the Uruguayan peso
• In Pre-Colombian times, several groups of Indians inhabited the area, most notably the Charrúa, who rebelled against the Spaniards who wanted to conquer the region
• In 1516, Juan Díaz de Solís discovered the Río de la Plata, and shortly after the area we know today as Uruguay was explored
• Sebastián Gaboto founded the first settlement in 1527, but it was destroyed by the indigenous peoples
• In 1680, the Portuguese founded a colony that was given to the Spaniards in 1777
• Montevideo was occupied by the British in 1806 and besieged by Brazilian troops in the 1840s
• After fighting against the Spaniards and the Portuguese and different changes in government, Uruguay declared independence in 1825
• Uruguay's economy is primarily agricultural and pastoral

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF ARGENTINA

• Argentina is in South America to the south of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and part of Brazil
• Chile is to its west
• The capital is Buenos Aires; the currency is the peso
• Several Indian groups inhabited the large territory in Pre-Colombian times
• In 1516, Juan Díaz de Solís discovered the Río de la Plata, and in 1536, Pedro de Mendoza founded Buenos Aires
• The region was not very important to Nueva España until 1776 when Spain established the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
• Argentina stayed under the dominance of Spain until 1816, when it declared its independence
• In the second half of the 20th century, Argentina's politics were dominated by Juan Perón, a popular dictator, and groups who opposed him
• Argentina is still haunted by the "disappearances" of dissenters that occurred in the '70s and '80s under the military rule that deposed the Perones
• The economy of Argentina is based on livestock, grains, and oil

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF BOLIVIA

• Bolivia is in South America to the south of Brazil and Peru, to the east of Chile, and to the north of Argentina and Paraguay
• It is interesting to note that the country does not have access to the sea
• The constitutional capital is SUCRE, but the administrative capital and seat of the government is LA PAZ
• It has declared Spanish, Quechua, and Guaraní, Aymara, and 33 other indigenous languages official languages
• In Pre-Colombian times, the Pukina and the Aymara inhabited the area but were under the Inca Empire
• In 1530, Bolivia was discovered by Gonzalo and Hernando Pizarro while they were exploring what is now Peru
• Bolivia was important during the colonial period because of its silver mines in Cerro Rico in Potosí
• Bolivia was part of the Alto Peru until 1776 when it was incorporated to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
• In 1825, Simón Bolívar declared the independence of Bolivia
• A large majority of Bolivians are of indigenous heritage, but have not traditionally had political or economic power
• In recent years, this has begun to change most notably with the election of Evo Morales as president
• Bolivia has rich national resources, including tin, silver, and natural gas, but most of the economy can be described as subsistence
• Coca is one of the major crops

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF PARAGUAY

• Paraguay is in South America to the south of Bolivia and to the east of Argentina
• The river Paraguay divides the country into east and west
• It is interesting to note that the country does not have access to the sea
• Paraguay has two official languages: Spanish and Guaraní
• The capital is Asunción; the currency is Guaraní
• In Pre-Colombian times, the Guaraní inhabited the area
• Aleixo García led several trips to explore the region, and in 1536, Pedro de Mendoza began colonization 
• Between 1735 and 1756, the Guaraní rebelled against the Spaniards
• In 1776, the area was incorporated to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
• Paraguay fought against Spain and against Argentina, and in 1811, declared its independence
• Paraguay has had many strong leaders in its history as an independent nation

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF PERU

• Peru is in South America to the south of Colombia and Ecuador, the west of Brazil and Bolivia, and to the north of Chile
• The Pacific Ocean is at its west
• The Andes run through the country
• The capital is Lima; the currency is the sol
• The official languages are Spanish and Quechua, Aymara, and other indigenous languages in the regions where they are spoken
• In Pre-Colombian times, the region was home to the earliest known American civilization, dating to c3200 B.C.
• Many developed cultures lived in the region, but by the 1300s, it was the INCA who had conquered a great deal of South America
• Machu Picchu, a great Incan fortress city, is a famous ruin
• In 1532, Francisco Pizarro landed in Peru and he conquered the region in the following years
• In 1542, Lima became the base for Spanish rule in South America
• In 1780, the Inca Túpac Amaru rebelled against the Spaniards
• In 1821, José de San Martín took control of the country and declared its independence
• The economy of Peru is based in agriculture

DESCRIBE THE GEOGRAPHY OF CHILE

• Chile is in South America to the south of Peru, the southeast of Bolivia, and the west of Argentina
• The Andes run through the country
• The Atacama Desert is in the north
• The capital is Santiago; the currency is the Chilean peso
• In Pre-Colombian times, the Incas and the Araucanians inhabited the area
• In 1536, Diego de Almagro explored the territory
• In the 1540s and 1550s, Pedro de Valdivia conquered the area
• In 1778, it became its own colonial division rather than being connected to the viceroyalty of Peru
• After long fights lead by Bernardo O'Higgins and José de San Martín, in 1818, Chile declared its independence from Spain
• In the 20th century, Chile grappled with leftist and rightist politics
• In 1973, General Augusto Pinochet took control of the country
• He was not removed from power until 1998
• His regime committed military violence and has faced many charges of human rights violations
• The economy of Chile is based in agriculture and minerals
• It is the world's largest producer of copper and has also become known for its wine
• Due to the different climates in the country, tourism plays a role in the economy as well

DESCRIBE THE HISTORY OF THE AZTECS

• The Aztecs were an Indian group that inhabited what is now central Mexico
• Before the arrival of Cortés, the Aztecs were the most powerful group in Mesoamerica
• The best known Aztec leaders were Moctezuma I and Moctezuma II
• The capital of the empire was Tenochtitlán and their language was Náhuatl
• The Aztecs had a very developed and centralized society
• Their religious system is well known
• Members of their pantheon were Quetzalcoatl, the god of life; Tezcatlipoca, the god of the sorcerers and the young warriors;  Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun; Tlaloc, the god of rain, and Coatlicue, the mother goddess
• Like many Mesoamerican peoples, the Aztecs used animal and human sacrifices to honor their gods

DESCRIBE THE HISTORY OF THE MAYA

• The Maya were one of the three most important Indian groups of the Pre-Colombian world
• They inhabited what today is the Yucatán in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and Belize
• The Maya culture was one of the most advanced cultures in the Pre-Colombian world
• The Maya were intellectuals, and they had an arithmetic system, a calendar, and hieroglyphic writing
• The Popol Vuh is a Mayan literary work
• The best known historic Mayan sites are Palenque, Copán, Tikal, Uxmal, and Chichen Itza
• The Mayan practiced human sacrifices to appease their gods: Itzamná, the supreme god; Kinich Ahau, the sun; and Chac, the rain 
• Their language was Maya

DESCRIBE THE WORK KNOWN AS THE POPOL VUH (16th CENTURY)

• The Popol Vuh, also known as El Libro del Consejo, was written by an anonymous Indian who, it is believed, was instructed by the Spaniards
• The Popol Vuh was written in the Mayan-Quiché language and later translated to Spanish
• There is a lot of controversy regarding who wrote and who translated the book
• In the book, the author compiles the Mayan myths that explain the creation of the world, the history of the Mayans, and some Mayan traditions
• It is considered a very important source about the Mayan Indians of the Pre-Colombian period

DESCRIBE THE HISTORY OF THE INCAS

• The Incas were the Indians that inhabited the region that is now Ecuador, Pero, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile
• The Incas had a very advanced culture; its social structure was based in ayllu or clans
• The culture was formed around communal agriculture
• The Incas extended their empire over other weaker or less advanced neighboring tribes
• They enforced tyrannical policies and used violence to control their subjects
• The most famous Inca sites are Machu Picchu, Cuzco, and Pisac
• Their main gods were Inti, the sun, and Viracocha, the supreme god
• They left impressive feats of architecture and engineering throughout their empire
• Their language was Quechua, which is still spoken in some parts of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador
• The Incas practiced human sacrifices at particular points in time (for example, crises, important times in agriculture)

DESCRIBE THE CONCEPT OF CONQUISTADORES AND DISCUSS THE IMPACT OF Cristóbal Colón (1451-1506)

• Several European men are famous (or infamous) as conquistadores, or conquerors, in Latin America - those who explored and took over portions of North, Central, and South America on behalf of their country in Europe
• Below and on the following cards are the most well known of the conquistadores:
• Colón, or Columbus, as he is known in English, was a navigator originally from Genoa, Italy
• He sailed to the New World four times as a representative of the Spanish crown (Ferdinand II and Isabella I)
• His original goal was to find a route to the East
• He is credited with visiting and/or colonizing the Caribbean islands of Bahamas, Haiti, Cuba, and the Antilles, and the eastern coasts of Central and South America and is considered the first of the discoverers of America

DISCUSS THE IMPACT OF Hernán Cortés (1485-1547) and Francisco Pizarro (1471-1541)

• Cortés first sailed to Cuba and Hispaniola (modern Haiti) and the Spanish colonies already established there
• From Cuba, he went on expedition to the mainland of North America
• He is most well known for his role there in toppling the Aztec empire and colonizing most of modern day Mexico for Spain
• He did this by allying with the Tlaxcaltecs, enemies of the Aztecs, and is also known for his harsh treatment of the Aztecs and other indigenous peoples
• Pizarro had taken part in several expeditions in South America, using modern day Panama as a launching point
• It was only on his third attempt that he successfully conquered Peru and the seat of the Inca empire there, establishing a Spanish colony in the region

DESCRIBE THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INDIGENOUS CULTURES/PEOPLES AND THE EUROPEANS

• While each region or colony had its own unique governance, some consistent themes arise in examining the relationship between the indigenous cultures of Latin America and the European colonizers
• European diseases, which had not yet been encountered by the indigenous populations, caused significant mortality during and after the conquests
• The conquests were armed conflicts and therefore many atrocities were visited on the indigenous peoples by the Europeans
• Much indigenous agriculture went on unhindered, especially in rural areas - the colonial powers were most interested in governing and exploiting natural resources and ruling city centers
• This led to a divide that is still felt today in Latin America between the European ruling class in the urban centers and the rural indigenous farmers
• When compared to the English colonial powers in North America, the Spanish were more open to having romantic and marital relationships with the indigenous  population, which created a complex hierarchical system of ethnicity
• Ultimately, while the indigenous peoples were not systematically separated and/or killed as in the United States, they were still economically and culturally marginalized by the Europeans

DESCRIBE THE EFFECTS OF SYNCRETISM IN LATINAMERICA

• The Catholic church was highly involved in the colonization of Latin America
• While many indigenous people ultimately began to practice Catholicism, a good deal of syncretism marks the religion of Latin America
• Indigenous religious practices and festivals were mixed or integrated with Catholic practices and festivals, creating unique religious traditions in regions of Latin America
• One primer example of this is Día de los Muertos in Mexico - the Catholic practice of All Saints Day blended with indigenous traditions for honoring ancestors to become a new and uniquely Mexican celebration
• The same syncretism is also evident in various art forms of the region

DESCRIBE THE TIMELINE FOR INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS IN LATIN AMERICA (1 OF 2 TOTAL)

• In two bursts of activity, Spain's colonies in the New World asserted, fought for, and won their independence
• This was triggered by a variety of factors
• The creole population (individuals born in Latin America to European parents) were disenchanted with being ruled from afar
• Happenings in the Napoleonic Wars gave the colonies a taste of freedom of trade, and they wanted more of this
• The Enlightenment ideals that had already spurred several revolutions found voices in Spain's colonies as well

DESCRIBE THE INFLUENCE OF SOR JUANA INéS DE LA CRUZ

(1651-1695)

• Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz is known as one of the most important Latin American authors of lyric poetry
• She lived in Mexico and wrote poetry, theater plays, and prose
• Her works deal with many themes - love, philosophy, gender, religion, beauty, and more
• She was a nun, and she used the opportunity to live an intellectual life that otherwise might not have been afforded a woman in her era in Mexico
• She is an important representative of the baroque era, and some of her best known works are Respuesta a Sor Filotea de la Cruz (prose), Primer sueño (poetry), and El divino Narciso (theater)

DESCRIBE THE TIMELINE FOR INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS IN LATIN AMERICA (2 OF 2 TOTAL)

• Following is a brief summary timeline of the Latin American independence movements. Not noted are the multiple starts and stops of the movements - the failed attempts prior to these successful independence movements:
• 1808-1810: Juntas and loyalists struggle over power in the capitals of Mexico, Uruguay, Chile, Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia, Argentina, and Ecuador
• 1810: Mexico calls for independence and armed resistance begins
• 1810-1817: Revolutionary troops led by José de San Martín combined with other regional forces to win military victories against Spanish troops in the southern region of South America
• 1813-1822:  Under the command of Simón Bolívar, another revolutionary army fought for control of the northern region of South America
• 1821: Mexico achieves independence and solidified self rule
• 1822: Bólivar and San Martín meet in Ecuador and decide to join forces
• 1822:The colonies in Central America join the new Mexican empire
• 1823: Central America breaks off from Mexico and forms its own federation
• 1824: The last major battle for South American independence is fought in Ayacucho
• 1826: Loyalist resistance in South America is completely defeated
• 1826-1850: Individual nations begin to form in Central and South America
• 1898: Cuba and Puerto Rico win their independence from Spain in the /Spanish-American War after several unsuccessful attempts at revolution 

DISCUSS THE INFLUENCE OF MIGUEL HIDALGO Y COSTILLA (1753-1811)

• Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, better known as Miguel Hidalgo, was a Mexican priest and patriot
• He is known as the father of the country, as the initiator of the Mexican independence movement, and as "Father Hidalgo"
• On September 16, 1810, he gave a battle cry in Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato, known as "the cry of Dolores" that started the Mexican war of independence from Spain
• He is an important figure in Mexican history, because he also ended slavery and fought for the rights of the indigenous peoples
• He succeeded in establishing a national government but soon after, the Royalists executed him

DISCUSS THE INFLUENCE OF José DE SAN Martín (1778-1850)

• José de San Martín was an Argentinian general, know as the liberator of Argentina and Chile
• He fought with the Spaniards against the French in Spain's war of independence, but later he fought against the Spaniards for the independence of Latin American countries
• With the help of the Chilean General Bernardo O'Higgins, he organized the army of the Andes
• San Martín unified several independence movements and helped Argentina, Chile, and Peru gain their independence
• He is also known as the protector of Peru

DISCUSS THE INFLUENCE OF Simón Bolívar (1783-1830)

• Simón Bolívar is known as the liberator of Venezuela
• He also helped Ecuador, Peru, and the Alto Peru (today's Bolivia) to obtain their independence
• It is said he was the most important man of the independence wars in South America
• He had a vision of a united Spanish America that he was unable to bring to fruition
• Besides being a general, he was an educated man and a writer
• He had studied with Andrés Bello and Simón Rodríguez, who taught him the ideas of freedom
• He wrote several works, including Memoria dirigida a los ciudadanos de Nueva Granada por un caraqueño (1812) and Carta a Jamaica (1815)
• He also wrote the constitution for the Republic of Bolivia

DISCUSS THE INFLUENCE OF DOMINGO FAUSTINO SARMIENTO (1811-1888)

• Domingo Faustino Sarmiento was an Argentinian writer
• He was also president of Argentina from 1868-1974
• He was also interested in education and worked as a pedagogue
• One of his main interests was education
• In 1845, he wrote his novel, Facundo, o Civilización i barbarie
• Other works by Sarmiento include: De la educación popular, Las ciento y una, conflictos y armonías de las razas de América, Mi defensa, and Recuerdos de provincia

DISCUSS THE INFLUENCE OF José Martí (1853-1895)

• José Martí was a Cuban writer and politician
• He was a hero of the Cuban independence movement
• Because of his status in the movement, he was exiled from Cuba more than once
• He died fighting against the Spaniards with Cuban revolutionaries
• The main themes of his works are freedom and liberalism
• Martí's poetry can be considered where modernism began in Latin American poetry
• Some of his well known works of poetry are: Ismaelillo, Versos libres, and Versos Sencillos
• He also wrote newspaper articles and essays such as his "Nuestra América"

DISCUSS THE INFLUENCE OF Rubén Darío (1867-1916)

• Rubén Darío was a writer from Nicaragua, and is a major figure in modernism
• He is best known for his poetry in which he displayed an emphasis in form and beauty
• In his poetry, he used traditional forms (such as the sonnet), but inside those forms employed rhythm and word choice to transform them
• He served as a diplomat and a journalist as well, and in his prose dealt with social and political issues of his day
• His most popular works are:  Prosas profanas, Cantos de vida y esperanza, and Canto errante
• Among his prose, the best known work is Azul

DISCUSS THE INFLUENCE OF José Enrique rODó (1871-1917)

• José Enrique Rodó was a Uruguayan essayist and philosopher
• He is best known as the best modernist prose writer
• His primary message was a warning about the North American influence in Latin America
• He wanted the Latin American youth to reject materialism and to embrace their culture
• His best known work is Ariel, which has been taken as the intellectual guide for people from his generation

DISCUSS THE INFLUENCE OF HORACIO QUIROGA (1878-1937)

• Horacio Quiroga was a Uruguayan writer, best known for his short stories
• He lived most of his life in Argentina, and he also wrote poetry
• Horacio Quiroga was influenced by Edgar Allan Poe, and his stories have elements of horror, American nature, and the supernatural
• His stories in particular had great impact on later Latin American writers such as Borges and Cortázar
• His main poetry work is  Arrecifes de coral
• His stories include: El crimen del otro, Historia de un amor turbio, Cuentos de amor, de locura y de muerte, Cuentos de la selva, Anaconda, and Los desterrados
• He also wrote a short novel, Pasado amor

DESCRIBE THE THEMES OF OLIGARCHY AND MARXISM IN LATIN AMERICAN POLITICS

• The 20th century in Latin American politics was tumultuous
• While each country has had it own political journey, some common themes and patterns emerge in the struggles of the region
• Even after the independence movements of the 19th century, many countries in Latin America were marked by an oligarchical structure of governance politically, economically, and culturally
• The elite class (primarily of European descent) held an outsized amount of power and capital
• To counter the oligarchy common in the countries of the region, Marxism presented itself as an appealing structure
• Broadly speaking, many of the 20th century conflicts in Latin America have had at their root the contrasting political, economic, and social views of the traditional oligarchy and of left-leaning reformers

DESCRIBE THE ENTRANCE OF LATIN AMERICA INTO THE WORLD ECONOMIC MARKET AND LATIN AMERICAN MILITARY REGIMES

• Prior to independence, the trade and natural resources of the colonies in Latin America were controlled by Spain
• After independence, the nations had to navigate international trade on their own, as well as decide how to control and exploit their own natural resources rather than letting the USA or Europe do so
• Once again, the opposing viewpoints of the oligarchy and Marxism presented two different visions for economic development
• From the beginning of  the revolutionary movements, the military leaders were heavily involved in the formation and ruling of the countries of Latin America
• This legacy lived on in the 20th century, and the military often involved themselves in overthrowing a government viewed as too authoritarian or too leftist
• However, these military regimes often violated human rights and devolved into dictatorships
• Some of the well know Latin American military dictators of the last century include members of the Somoza family (rules 1936-1979) in Nicaragua; Augusto Pinochet (ruled 1973-1990 in Chile); Rafael Trujillo (Dominican Republic from 1930-1961);  and Fidel Castro in Cuba(1959-2008)

DESCRIBE THE URBANIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA AND ISSUES OF INDIGENOUS RIGHTS

• Urbanization has brought great change and new challenges to Latin America in the 20th century
• As more individuals moved from subsistence farming in rural areas to the urban centers, issues such as housing, poverty, and infrastructure came to the surface
• Additionally, urbanization increased the contact between indigenous cultures/languages and the "dominant" culture/language
• This increased contact has both highlighted the discrimination present in Latin America and allowed for some marginalization of indigenous people groups
• Because of the increased contact between indigenous communities and the urban culture, indigenous rights has been a key issue in Latin American politics in the 20th century
• Indigenous languages such as Náhuatl and Quechua have been granted official language status in some countries
• There has been a push against the idea that the more European you look, the more status you can have, a cultural ideal since the colonization of the region
• At the beginning of the 21st century, individuals of indigenous descent reached the highest political offices of their countries for the first time (e.g., Evo Morales of Bolivia and Alejandro Toledo of Peru)

DESCRIBE KEY EVENTS OF THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION (1910-1920)

• Also known as the Mexican Civil War, the Mexican Revolution was prompted by discontent with the 31-year rule of Porfirio Díaz
• The landed elites sought to oust him through an election in 1910; when the election proved to be rigged against them, they rose up in arms
• Francisco Madero was chosen as the leader of the new government in 1911, but the revolution spread to the middle and laboring classes, and Madero was met with disenchantment from his fellow elites on the right and from the new, poorer revolutionaries on the left
• A counter-revolutionary regime, led by General Victoriano Huerta, came into power after assassinating Madero in 1913 and was ousted in 1914
• At this point, an all out civil war began between the Constitutionalists and the revolutionaries, who were led by famous fighters Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata
• The armed conflict lasted until 1919 and shifted from a two sided fight to a power struggle between multiple factions
• A constitution was written in 1917 and began to be enforced in 1920
• The death toll of the Civil War was high - some estimates set it at 10% of the population at the time
• The war had a lasting impact on Mexican society, as the government formed afterward provided a shift toward social justice and liberal economics

DESCRIBE THE DEPOSITION OF Perón IN ARGENTINA (1955)

• Juan Perón had an outsized influence on the politics of Argentina for a good part of the 20th century
• Elected in 1946 with the support of the working classes, he improved living conditions in Argentina but restricted constitutional liberties
• As Argentina's economy began to struggle in the 1950s, Perón began to rule in a more authoritarian style, lost the support of the workers, and was ultimately ousted by the military in 1955
• He lived in exile in Spain, while the government that took over was unsuccessful in dealing with Argentina's economic difficulties
• In 1972, he was allowed back in the country, and successfully ran for president again in 1973
• He died in 1974, and the military coup that seized power from his wife subjected the country to years of dictatorial rule

DISCUSS KEY EVENTS WITHIN THE CUBAN REVOLUTION (1953-1959)

• Fulgencio Batista, the military dictator of Cuba, incited the population to anger with his links to organized crime and to American industry in Cuba
• Fidel Castro, sympathetic to communist politics, attempted to have Batista removed by the Cuban courts and lost his case
• He then organized an armed revolt in 1951
• Both communist and anti-communist guerillas fought against Batista's forces at first, ultimately uniting to fight together
• The United States withdrew their support for Batista in 1957-1958
• In 1959, the Cuban revolutionary forces took over major cities and the capital, Havana, and began to rule
• The Castro government enacted many positive social reforms, such as investing in infrastructure and education and pushing back against racial discrimination
• However, the government also engaged in repression of anti-communist sentiment, resulting in political and religious persecution
• Castro was also interested in "exporting' revolution to other countries in Latin America and aligned himself with the USSR
• This created fear of leftist ideas among the ruling elite and/or the military in many neighboring countries and shaped USA policy in Latin America for decades

DISCUSS THE INFLUENCE OF JORGE LUIS BORGES (1899-1986)

• Jorge Luis Borges is one of the best known writers in the Spanish language
• He was born in Argentina but lived in Europe for some time
• Besides writing poetry, essays, and stories, he was a professor of English literature at the Universidad de Buenos Aires
• Borges was a leader in a literary movement called ultraism, which sought to break from the structures of the past (unlike modernism)
• His works are fantastic and deal with metaphysical problems
• His most famous works of poetry are: Fervor de Buenos Aires, Luna de enfrente, and Cuaderno de San Martín
• Some of his best known short stories and collections are: Historia universal de la infamia, "El jardín de los senderos que se bifurcan", Ficciones, El Aleph, and Historia de la eternidad
• His writings belong to a genre of literature called Magical Realism

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF JUAN RULFO (1918-1986)

• Juan Rulfo was a Mexican writer who wrote a novel and many short stories
• He is considered the most profound of the Mexican prose writers of the '40s
• Rulfo is known as one of the creators of magical realism, a mingling of the very ordinary with fantasy and myth
• He created historic stories based on ignorant, poor, and desolated country people
• His works deal with social injustice, hard life, pain, and suffering
• The magical aspects of his works include the fantastic and the supernatural, such as the use of ghosts as characters in his works
• Although Rulfo wrote only two pieces, a collection of stories entitled El llano en llamas, and a novel, Pedro Páramo, he won several prizes

DESCRIBE THE WORKS OF PABLO NERUDA (1904-1973)

• Pablo Neruda was a Chilean poet with Marxist convictions
• He is known as one of the most important poets of the 20th century
• Neruda served as a diplomat for 
  Chile in many parts of the world
• He was friends with some of the Spanish poets from Generation of '27
• In his work, he identified with the victims of wars, social injustice, and tyranny which he witnessed around the world and in his own home country
• In 1971, Neruda won the Nobel Prize for Literature for his poetry, which includes the following titles:
• Crepusculario, Veinte poemas de amor y una canción desesperada, España en el corazón, Residencia en la tierra, Canto general, Odas elementales, and Cantos ceremoniales

DESCRIBE THE PAINTINGS OF DIEGO RIVERA (1886-1957)

• Diego Rivera was a Mexican painter
• He is one of the most famous muralists in the world and the most famous of the three main Mexican muralists: Rivera, Orozco, and Siqueiros
• He was influenced by the Italian Renaissance but also by the Russian communist movement
• After the Mexican revolution, he painted several murals in Mexico City
• Many of his pieces include the revalorization of the indigenous Mexican roots
• They also include symbols and historical figures from the colonial period
• His major works include: La creación; La leyenda de Quetzalcoatl; Historia de México: de la conquista al futuro; Sueño de una tarde dominical en la Alameda Central; La historia de la cardiología
• These works are in Mexico City in the Palacio de Bellas Artes; the Escuela Preparatoria nacional, The Universidad Iberoamericana, and the Palacio Nacional
• Other works can be found in New York and Detroit
• He was married to the painter Frida Kahlo

DESCRIBE THE PAINTINGS OF JOSé CLEMENTE OROZCO (1883-1949)

• José Clemente Orozco was a Mexican painter
• Together with Rivera and Siqueiros, Orozco is one of the three Mexican muralists whose work revitalized modern Mexican art
• He painted murals after the Mexican Revolution, and his work shows different aspects of the human condition
• Besides the revolution, he focused on Pre-Colombian culture
• He was less political than Rivera, but political issues still influenced his work
• In his murals, messages of social justice for the working class and for the native Indians are found
• Orozco's works can be found in Mexico City, Guadalajara, Veracruz, and New York
• Among his best known pieces are: Omnisciencia; Luchas proletarias; La justicia; Riquezas nacionales; Buena vida; and La independencia nacional

DESCRIBE THE PAINTINGS OF DAVID ALFARO SIQUEIROS (1896-1974)

• David Alfaro Siqueiros was a Mexican painter contemporary with Orozco and Rivera
• He painted murals in Mexico after the Mexican Revolution
• His murals and other works are more realistic than those of Rivera and Orozco, but they show also aspects of Pre-Colombian culture and its relationship with colonial culture in Mexico
• He was very influenced by and involved in politics and his works have Marxist messages
• All his works are in Mexico City
• Among his best known pieces are: Nueva democracia; Víctimas de la guerra; Víctimas del fascismo; El tormento de Cuauhtémoc; El entierro del obrero sacrificado; Los elementos; Los mitos; and El llamado de la libertad

DESCRIBE THE PAINTINGS OF FRIDA KAHLO (1907-1954)

• Frida Kahlo was a 20th century Mexican painter
• She was born and died in Mexico City
• She contracted polio as a child, and throughout her life she suffered because of this and other health issues, some of them caused by a bus accident when she was a teenager
• After the accident, she stopped her medical studies that she was pursuing and started her career as a painter
• She married Mexican muralist, Diego Rivera
• In her work, she used bright colors and simple and primitive forms deeply rooted in Mexican and Amerindian culture
• Her paintings were also influenced by Surrealism
• She is known mainly for her self-portraits and other depictions of the feminine form
• Julie Taymor directed the movie, Frida, in which Salma Hayek played the role of the artist

DESCRIBE THE BOOM IN LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE

• The Boom refers to a group of Latin American writers in the 1960s-1970s whose works reached European audiences to a greater extent than in previous generations
• The works produced during the Boom are modernist in style, sometimes employing multiple voices
• The writers used both urban and rural settings and educated as well as colloquial language
• They were not afraid to deal with political and social turmoil, and mixed history and fantasy addressing the themes confronting Latin American society in their time

DESCRIBE THE IMPACT OF ERNESTO SáBATO (1911-2011)

• Ernesto Sábato was an Argentine writer and literary critic
• He studied physics in his country and then attended the Sorbonne University in Paris and worked at the Curie Institute and later at MIT
• After World War II, he started to write and to be politically involved in the events of his country
• He also started to paint
• He translated some scientific books and wrote numerous essays and articles on literature, science, metaphysics, and politics
• He is internationally recognized for his novels: El túnel; Sobre héroes y tumbas; and Abaddón el exterminador
• After the military regime of the 1970s and 1980s had lost its power, Sábato was tapped to conduct the investigation into the human rights violations they committed
• His second son, Mario, a film director and screenwriter, directed the movie El poder de las tinieblas, which is based on the section, Informe sobre ciegos from Sobre héroes y tumbas

DESCRIBE THE IMPACT OF OCTAVIO PAZ (1914-1998)

• Octavio Paz was a Mexican poet and essayist
• He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1990
• He can be classified neither as an idealist nor as a symbolist because his style of writing was very unique
• The concepts he most often dealt with in his works are loneliness and existential restlessness
• His most important poetry works are: Libertad bajo palabra; Piedra de sol; Salamandra; Ladera este; Topoemas; Prueba del nueve; árbol Adentro; and Obra poética
• He also wrote essays, the most famous being: El laberinto de la Soledad; El arco y la lira; Corriente alterna, and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz o las trampas de la fe

DESCRIBE THE IMPACT OF JULIO Cortázar (1914-1984)

• Julio Cortázar was a very important Argentinian author who wrote stories, essays, and novels
• He lived a great deal of his life in France
• He had great influence in the narrative art
• His work deals with reality, fantasy, and the absurd
• He was a surrealist and was committed to Latin American Marxist politics
• His most famous works are: Rayuela; Final del juego; Bestiario; Las armas secretas; Todos los fuegos el fuego; Alguien que anda por ahí; Los premios; and Nicaragua tan violentamente dulce

DESCRIBE THE IMPACT OF GABRIEL García Márquez (1928-2014)

• Gabriel García Márquez was a Colombian who is recognized as one of the greatest narrative writers of the 20th century
• In 1982, García Márquez won the Nobel Prize for Literature
• The magical realism in his works examined the relationships between space and time, and also exposes Colombian life and the relationship between the social and the political in everyday life
• His best known works are: Cien años de soledad and El amor en el tiempo de cólera
• Some of his other novels include: La hojarasca; El coronel no tiene quien le escriba; El general en su laberinto; and Del amor y otros demonios

DESCRIBE THE IMPACT OF CARLOS FUENTES (1928-2012)

• Carlos Fuentes was a Mexican writer and diplomat
• In his novels, he explores Mexican culture and looks for a way to preserve it
• His novels include: La región más transparente; Las buenas conciencias; Cambio de piel; La muerte de Artemio Cruz; Aura; Zona sagrada; Terra nostra; Cumpleaños; La cabeza de hidra; Gringo viejo; Cristóbal Nonato; and La frontera de cristal

They are based in the historical and explore real themes, but do so as works of fiction, often employing magical realism

Fuentes also wrote non-fiction, essays, and short stories

DESCRIBE THE IMPACT OF MARIO VARGAS LLOSA

(1936 -)

• Mario Vargas Llosa is a Peruvian novelist and politician
• His work falls into the genre of realism
• In his works, he examines the vulgarity of the human nature, not only externally but also internally
• His topics are usually political in nature
• In 1990, he was a presidential candidate for Peru
• In 2010, he received the Nobel Prize for Literature
• His best known works are:  Los jefes; La ciudad y los perros; Conversación en la catedral; Pantaleón y las visitadoras; Lituma en los Andes; La guerra del fin del mundo; Historia de Mayta; El hablador; and ¿Quién mató a Palomo Montero?

DESCRIBE THE IMPACT OF ISABEL ALLENDE

(1942----)

• Isabel Allende is a writer born in Peru
• Shortly after, she moved to Chile with her family, and she considers herself Chilean
• Allende has primarily lived outside of Chile since the coup in 1973
• In her works, Allende mixes the fantastic with the real
• Her works could be classified as the part of the magical realism realm and are greatly influenced by García Márquez
• Her most celebrated piece is La casa de los espíritus, in which she follows a Chilean family for four generations
• In the novel, Allende examines sociopolitical issues in Chile in the post-colonial period
• Other works from Allende are: De amor de la sombra; Eva Luna: Cuentos de Eva Luna: El plan infinito; Paula; Hija de la fortuna; La ciudad de las bestias; and Inés del alma mía
• She continues to write novels today

DESCRIBE THE IMPACT OF FERNANDO BOTERO

(1932---)

• Fernando Botero is a painter born in Medellín, Colombia
• He was trained as a matador while in high school and later on lived for some time in Spain and France
• Botero is one of the most celebrated Latin American artists of the century
• In his figurative paintings, he uses exaggerated and disproportionate volumes, especially to depict the human figure, adding humorous details to show criticism and irony
• His figures are easily recognized, and his particular, unmistakable style is sometimes referred to as Boterismo
• He continues to exhibit regularly and lives and works in New York and Paris

DESCRIBE THE ROLE OF DIVERSITY IN LATIN AMERICA

• While it is convenient to talk about Latin America as one region, it is important to note that what we call Latin America is not monolithic or homogenous in cultural practices and perspectives
• Each region and/or country has its own heritage which includes European and indigenous influences and unique social and political history and structure

DESCRIBE CULTURAL PRACTICES TIED TO FAMILY VALUES AND LIFESTYLE IN LATIN AMERICA

• While Latin America has undergone significant urbanization, there are still many distinctions between rural and urban life, with urban lifestyles very similar to those around the world and rural lifestyles more similar to the culture in previous generations
• Traditional family values (strong father, caregiving mother, close extended family) are still common in Latin American countries, though there is a rise in single parenthood and in opportunities outside of the home for women
• Community is valued, and celebrations are an important part of family and community life

DESCRIBE THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN LATIN AMERICA

• The Catholic Church played a large role in the colonization of Latin America by Spain
• Because of this legacy, the church is culturally entrenched and yet often vilified, especially during the political turmoil of the last century
• Latin American Catholicism is marked by syncretism and, in the last 50 years, liberation theology with its emphasis on anti-imperialism and care for the poor
• A majority of individuals in the region still identify as Catholic, although protestant Pentecostalism has spread rapidly in Latin America in recent decades as well

DESCRIBE COMMON TRADITIONS AND FESTIVALS IN LATIN AMERICA, AS WELL AS THE ROLE OF THE VARIOUS LANGUAGES USED IN LATIN AMERICA

• Día de los Muertos is perhaps the most well known Latin American festival
• Many Latin American festivals revolve around Catholic feasts or holy days, but similarly Día de los Muertos, involves a good deal of syncretism and therefore, reflects local history and traditions as well
• Semana Santa (Holy week), Las posadas (on Christmas Eve), and Carnaval (Mardi Gras) are some examples of these celebrations
• Many of the regions have local saints that they celebrate (La Virgen de Guadalupe, La Virgen de la Candelaria, etc.)
• It is also traditional for a girl to have a lavish party on her 15th birthday, called a quinceañera

• While Spanish is spoken throughout Latin America, several indigenous languages are still spoken as well
• Quechua has over 6 million speakers in the Andean region, and other prominent languages include Mayan, Guaraní, Náhuatl, and Aymara
• These languages have gained official recognition in the last decades and are being used (often for the first time in centuries) in publication and education

EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING BEFOREHAND THE STRUCTURE OF THE TEST

• Familiarize yourself with the structure of the test
• It is important to know the different sections of the tests; if it is timed as a whole or by sections; what is the format required for the answers (multiple choice, one-sentence answers, one-paragraph answers, a combination  of them)
• For the writing sections, will the test require a minimum and/or a maximum number of words?
• Also, learn whether the test will be done on a computer, on paper, or a combination of both
• If computerized, make sure your typing skills are up to the task, both in speed and in accuracy
• You may be allowed to access a practice tests ahead of time through your test's website that will let you see the user interface that will be provided for recording your speaking, inserting Spanish symbols, and completing other test-specific tasks