Term
| growth expectations during early childhood |
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Definition
decreases: 2.5 in & 5-7 pounds per year
trunks and legs lengthen, heads become more proportional
overall decline in body fat
most important factors are ethnic origin & nutrition |
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Term
| effects of myelination during early childhood |
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Definition
| improvement of fine motor skills- girls usually outperform boys |
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Term
| changes in activity level and activities during early childhood |
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Definition
most don't get recommended amount of physical activity
boys are more active
younger more likely than older to engage
reducing phys ed and recess time |
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Term
| childhood obesity during early childhood |
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Definition
increased dramatically in recent decades
contributes to a number of health problems |
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Term
| factors associated with poor nutrition in early childhood |
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Definition
iron-deficiency anemia is common (low ses)
wic helps to address this problem |
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Term
| risk of parental smoking during early childhood |
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Definition
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Term
| piaget's stage of preoperational thought |
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Definition
2 to 7 yrs
begin to represent the world w/ words, images, and drawings
form stable concepts and begin to reason
cognitions are dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs
child does not yet perform operations, or reversible mental actions (can only do mentally what they can do physically) |
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Term
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Definition
| the inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's (feature of first substage of preop thought, 2-4 yrs) |
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Term
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Definition
| awareness that altering an object's or substance's appearance does not change its basic properties |
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Term
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Definition
| focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others |
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Term
| zone of proximal development |
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Definition
| vygotsky's term for tasks too difficult for children to master alone but that can be mastered with the assistance of adults or more skilled children. |
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Term
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Definition
changing the level of support
when teacher adjusts amount of guidance to fit child's current performance |
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Term
| Vygotsky's belief about the development of thought and language |
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Definition
to communicate socially
to solve tasks
to plan, guide, and monitor behavior
private speech important tool
external to internal speech (3-7 yrs)
then inner speech becomes their thoughts |
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Term
| development of attention during early childhood |
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Definition
improves significantly during preschool yrs and is related to school readiness
executive and sustained attention |
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Term
| effects of suggestion on memories during early childhood |
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Definition
preschoolers are most suggestible
interviewing techniques very important |
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Term
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Definition
the awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others
gradually understand others' perceptions, emotions, and desires
btw 3-5: understand people can have false beliefs |
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Term
| theory of the mind and autism |
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Definition
autism leads to large deficits in theory of mind
especially difficult to understand others' beliefs and emotions
individual variation in autistic children
deficits may be due to other aspects of cognition |
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Term
| child-centered vs not child-centered education during early childhood |
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Definition
child-centered- emphasizes the education of the whole child and concern for his or her physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development (Montessori approach-child given freedom and spontaneity)
learn best through active, hands-on teaching methods, taking into consideration uniqueness of each child |
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Term
| development of self-conscious emotions |
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Definition
emotions such as pride, shame, guilt
must be able to refer to themselves and be aware of themselves as distinct from others
appears at 18 months |
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Term
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Definition
requires the ability to discern another's inner psychological state, or "perspective taking"
learning how to identify a wide range of emotional states in others and to anticipate what kinds of action will improve another person's emotional state |
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Term
| development of moral reasoning according to Piaget |
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Definition
4 to 7: heteronomous morality
justice and rules are unchangeable properties of the world
behavior is judged based on its consequences only
imminent justice: if a rule is broken, punishment comes immediately
7 to 10: transitional phase
10 and older: autonomous morality
rules and laws are created by people
actions and intentions should be judged |
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Term
| parents' role in the development of moral reasoning |
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Definition
both parents and peers contribute
relational quality, parental discipline, proactive strategies, and conversational dialogue are particularly important
parents should proactively avert potential misbehavior before it takes place- use of diversions, conversations about values and beliefs |
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Term
| gender roles and gender identities |
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Definition
gender identity: sense of being male or female
gender roles: sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel
biological, social, parental, and peer influences, cognitive influences with gender schema theory |
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Term
| theories of gender differences |
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Definition
social role theory
psychoanalytic theory: attraction to opp sex parent
social cognitive theory: through observing and imitating- involves reward and punishment for gender appropriate behavior
parental influences: mother's and father's socialization
peer influences: greater pressure for boys than girls
cognitive influences: social cognitive theory and gender schema theory |
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Term
| the relationship between parenting practices and gender development |
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Definition
mothers: socialize daughters to be more obedient and responsible than sons
fathers: show more attention to sons than daughters, engage in more activities with sons, and put more effort into promoting sons' intellectual development |
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Term
| play preferences of children during early childhood |
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Definition
preference toward same-sex playmates by age 3
from age 5, boys are more likely than girls to form large groups and participate in organized group games
boys engage in rough play, competition, conflict, etc.
girls engage in "collaborative discourse" (talk and act in more reciprocal manner) |
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Term
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Definition
extensively reward and punish gender behavior
greater pressure for boys to conform to traditional gender roles |
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Term
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Definition
Baumrind's-
Authoritarian: restrictive style in which parents demand obedience and respect, firm linits, no discussion, children often unhappy, fearful, and anxious, sons may behave aggressively
Authoritative: encourages children to be independent while placing limits and controls on actions, extensive verbal give-and-take, children are cheerful, self-controlled, and self-reliant
Neglectful: parent is very uninvolved in child's life, children feel other aspects of parents' life are more important and tend to be socially incompetent, immature, and have low self-esteem
Indulgent: parents are highly involved but place few demands or controls on child, children never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to get their way
Authoritative most effective across ethnicity, SES, and family structure
Authoritarian is best for some ethnic groups: asian, latino, african american |
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Term
| research on corporal punishment |
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Definition
U.S. and Canada favor most
correlational research shows use is:
associated with higher levels of immediate compliance, aggression, and antisocial behavior in children
associated with lower levels of moral internalization and mental health |
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Term
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Definition
support that parents provide one another in jointly raising a child
poor coordination, undermining, lack of cooperation and warmth, and disconnection by one parent places child at risk for problems |
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Term
| effects of birth order and research related to it |
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Definition
birth order linked with certain personality characteristics- firstborns more mature, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled, but also have more guilt and anxiety
variations in interactions with parents and siblings may account for differences
birth order itself shows limited ability to predict behavior |
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Term
| effects of divorce on children |
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Definition
children from divorced families show poorer adjustment
can be advantageous if marital problems are affecting the well-being of the children
adjustment for children improves when parents' relationship is harmonious and when they use authoritative parenting
child risk and vulnerability factors:
adjustment prior to divorce, personality, temperament, and gender (girls do worse), custody situation |
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Term
| research findings on gay and lesbian parents and their children |
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Definition
| no evidence that children growing up with lesbian mothers or gay fathers are any different |
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Term
| effects of the development of the prefrontal cortex during middle and late childhood |
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Definition
| improved attention, reasoning, and cognitive control |
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Term
| why fine motor skills improve during middle and late childhood |
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Definition
increased myelination of central nervous system
girls outperform boys on fine motor skills |
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Term
| eating patterns that have contributed to an increase in obesity |
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Definition
| television watching, not eating at dinner table, reduction in p.e. programs |
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Term
| relationship between gender and learning disabilities |
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Definition
| boys are three times more likely and most common form involves reading |
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Term
| causes and treatments of adhd |
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Definition
genetics, brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development, cigarette and alcohol exposure prenatally, later peak for cerebral cortex thickening
stimulant meds, combo of meds and behavior management works best, exercise may reduce symptoms |
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Term
| least restrictive environment |
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Definition
a setting that is as similar as possible to that of non-disabled children
inclusion: child w/ special needs in regular classroom |
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Term
| criticisms of Piaget's theory of cognitive development |
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Definition
some concrete abilities do not appear at the same time as Piaget proposed
education and culture exert stronger influences than Piaget believed
more emphasis on attention, memory, and strategy use |
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Term
| fuzzy trace theory of memory |
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Definition
two types of memory representations:
verbatim memory trace: precise details
gist: central idea
older children use gist more, contributes to fuzzy traces
fuzzy traces are more enduring than verbatim traces |
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Term
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Definition
thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence
few schools really teach this |
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Term
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Definition
ability to think in novel ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems
convergent and divergent thinking
encourage brainstorming, don't overcontrol, build confidence, encourage intellectual risks, etc |
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Term
| normal distribution of intelligence |
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Definition
extremely high and extremely low scores are very rare
1 in 50 about 130 and 1 in 50 less than 70 |
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Term
| Sternberg's and Gardner's theories of intelligence |
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Definition
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence-
Analytical: ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast
Creative: ability to creat, design, invent, originate, and imagine
Practical: ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice
Gardner's Eight Frames of Mind-
Verbal: think in words, use language
Mathematical
Spatial
Bodily-Kinetic
Musical
Interpersonal: understand and interact with others
Intrapersonal: understand oneself
Naturalist: observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems |
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Term
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Definition
flynn effect: rapidly increasing IQ test scores around the world due to increasing levels of education attained by more people, explosion of available information
communication of parents, schooling, interventions designed to help children at risk for impoverished intelligence |
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Term
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Definition
IQ not sole indicator of competence
range of tasks IQ tests measure far too narrow |
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Term
| Terman's research on high IQ children |
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Definition
gifted children are socially well adjusted and many go on to become successful
tend to be more mature than others, have fewer emotional problems and grow up in a more positive family environment |
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Term
| effects of being raised bilingual |
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Definition
learning second language easiest for children
ability to speak two languages has positive effect on child's cognitive development
better focus, concept formation, analytic reasoning, cognitive flexibility and complexity |
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Term
| development of perspective taking |
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Definition
increase in middle to late childhood
first, awareness that others may have a perspective because they have more access to information
then become aware that each individual is aware of the other's perspective and that putting one's self in the other's place is a way of judging the other person's intentions, purposes, and actions.
important as to whether children develop prosocial or antisocial attitudes |
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Term
| effects of high self-esteem |
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Definition
| children with high self-esteem do not seem to perform better in school, have greater initiative (positive or negative), and are prone to both prosocial and antisocial actions |
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Term
| changes in emotional development during middle and late childhood |
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Definition
improved emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation, increased awareness of the events leading to emotional reactions, ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions, use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings, and a capacity for genuine empathy
Older children utilize more stress-coping strategies |
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Term
| Kohlberg's theory of moral development |
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Definition
proposed 6 universal states of moral development based on interviews dealing with moral dilemmas
stage 1 and 2 use decrease with age, no 10 year olds but many adults use level 4, stage 5 does not appear until 20, and stage 6 is very rare
too much emphasis on thought and not behavior
may be culturally biased
justice perspective vs caring perspective (male vs female) |
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Term
| moral character and moral exemplars |
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Definition
moral character: people with the willpower, desires, and integrity to stand up to pressure and behave morally
moral exemplars: people who have lived exemplary moral lives |
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Term
| differences in abilities in males and females |
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Definition
differences are averages, considerable overlap btw sexes, differences may be biological, sociocultural, or both
visuospatial skills for males, math
emotional expression for females, reading and writing |
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Term
| gender differences in prosocial behavior |
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Definition
females engage in more prosocial behavior than males
females are more likely to help people take care of their children and personal problems; males are more likely to help in situations in which they feel competent and involve some danger |
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Term
| characteristics of masculine, feminine, and androgynous roles |
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Definition
androgynous people are more flexible, competent, and mentally healthy
desirability depends on context |
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Term
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Definition
| a speaker may adjust their words or tone of voice based on their perceptions of a listener's facial expressions or body language |
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Term
| effects of being popular, neglecte, and rejected |
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Definition
popular children: give out reinforcements, listen carefully, are happy, control their negative emotions, act like themselves, show enthusiasm and concern for others, and are self confident without being conceited
neglected children: engage in low rates of peer interaction and are often described as shy
rejected children: often have more serious social adjustment problems than neglected children and often find that rejection increases agressive behavior over time- more impulsive, more emotionally reactive, and fewer social skills |
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Term
| effects of bullying and the effectiveness of school based interventions |
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Definition
victims tend to be lonely and have difficulty making friends, be anxious, socially withdrawn and aggressive
bullies tend to have low grades in school and use alcohol and tobacco
more likely to experience depression and attempt suicide
more health problems such as headaches, sleep problems, and anxiety
mixed results from school-based interventions
Olweus bullying protection program has 30 to 70 percent success
steps to respect |
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Term
| role of childhood friendships |
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Definition
companionship, stimulation, physical support, ego support, social comparison, affection, and intimacy
developmental advantages occur when children have socially skilled and supportive friends |
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Term
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Definition
advocates argue testing will improve student performance, encourage teachers to spend more time teaching tested subjects, raise expectations for students, identify poorly performing schools, and improve confidence in schools
critics argue that using a single test as the sole indicator of students' skills
tests do not measure creativity, motivation, persistence, flexible thinking, social skills
teachers spend too much time teaching to the test
gifted students are neglected
each state is allowed to set own standard |
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Term
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Definition
parents may not set high educational standards, may not know how to help children with schoolwork
students may not have resources to pay for educational materials and expenses
lower test scores, lower graduation, lower college attendance, young teachers with less experience, curriculum that encourages rote learning, old and undesirable buildings, fewer resources |
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Term
| differences in feeling about body image |
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Definition
girls are less happy with their bodies and become more dissatisfied over time
boys typically become more satisfied as they move through puberty |
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Term
| effect of early and late puberty on males and females |
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Definition
early maturing boys: positive, more successful peer relations
early maturing girls: more likely to smoke, drink, be depressed, have an eating disorder, struggle for earlier independence, have older friends, date earlier, and have earlier sexual experiences
late maturing boys: report stronger sense of identity in their 30s, but early maturation seems to be better |
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Term
| cross cultural rates of adolescent pregnancy |
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Definition
| us has one of the highest teen pregnancy rates in the world |
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Term
| effects of being teenage parent on the parent and the child |
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Definition
health risks for baby and mother such as low birth weight, neurological problems, childhood illness
mothers often drop out of school and typically do not catch up economically |
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Term
| poor health habits during adolescence |
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Definition
poor nutrition, lack of exercise, inadequate sleep
typically need 9 hours and biological clocks shift as they get older which conflicts with school starting times |
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Term
| leading causes of death for adolescents and how this varies according to ethnicity |
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Definition
| accidents, typically motor vehicle, homicide (more common among african american males, and suicide (more common among native americans |
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Term
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Definition
anorexia is weighing less than 85% normal weight, typically begins early, 10 times more common in females, white females from upper class, linked to problems in family functioning, fashion image in U.S.
bulimics are preoccupied with food, have intense fear of becoming overweight, and are usually of normal weight |
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Term
| development of formal operations |
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Definition
| age 11+, more abstract than concrete operational, increased verbal problem solving, tendency to think about thought, thoughts of idealism and possibilities, more logical thought, hypothetical-deductive reasoning |
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Term
| personal fable and imaginary audience |
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Definition
personal fable: involves a sense of uniqueness and invincibility
imaginary audience: adolescents' belief that others are as interested in them as they are |
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Term
| relationship of self-esteem and gender in adolescence |
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Definition
girl's tends to decline while boy's increases
low self-esteem associated with poorer mental and physical health, worse economic prospects, and higher levels of criminal behavior |
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Term
| identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement |
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Definition
diffusion: individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments
foreclosure: individuals who have made a commitment but not experienced a crisis
moratorium: in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are absent or weak
achievement: have undergone a crisis and made a commitment |
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Term
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Definition
key changes in emerging adulthood than in adolescence
identity does not remain stable throughout life: MAMA |
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Term
| role of religion in adolescence |
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Definition
downtrend in religious interest
higher in religiousity are: less likely to smoke, drink, use marijuana, be truant, engage in delinquent activities, and be depressed |
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Term
| role of parent-adolescent conflict |
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Definition
increases in early years and typically involves everyday events
disagreements may serve a positive developmental function- facilitate transition from being dependent to autonomous |
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Term
| effective parenting of adolescents |
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Definition
securely attached less likely to engage in problem behavior
need to balance freedom and control |
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Term
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Definition
| mixed-sex friendships can provide adolescents with access to potential romantic partners |
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Term
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Definition
adolescents who date are more likely to be perceived by peers as more physically attractive
at unusually early age linked with:
lower grades, less active participation in class, school-related problems, delinquency, substance use |
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Term
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Definition
ceremony or ritual that marks transition from one status to another
vary among cultures- rich in Africa
found in various religious and social groups in U.S. |
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Term
| effects of being an ethnic minority on adolescents |
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Definition
| prejudice, discrimination, poverty, bias |
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Term
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Definition
early onset- before 11, associated with more negative developmental outcomes, more likely to persist into adulthood, and associated with more mental health and relationship problems
late onset- after 11 |
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Term
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Definition
linear increase from 15 to 22
earlier onset linked with more negative outcomes
considerably higher in women: females tend to ruminate, more negative body image, more discrimination, puberty occurs earlier |
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Term
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Definition
3rd leading cause of death
females try more often, but males succeed more
gay only slightly higher risk |
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