• sacs that hold the testes and epididymis
• help regulate the temperature of the testes

• paired organs that produce sperm and male sex hormones, testosterone
• composed of seminiferous tubules where sperm are being produced

• inside the scrotum
• sperm that are maturing are stored here

• connects the epididymis to the urethra
• transports sperm to the urethra during ejaculation
• first section stores mature sperm
• second part is transfer tube to the uretrha

seminal vesicle (2): produces a sugary fluid that provides energy for sperm

prostate gland: produces an alkaline fluid to help buffer the acidic pH in the vagina

bulbourethral/Cowper's glands: produce mucus that acts as a lubricant in the urethra

• intensely sensitive tip of the penis, naturally covered by foreskin
• erectile dysfunction (impotency): occurs when the erectile tissue does not expand enough to compress the veins during an erection

• slightly basic pH 7.5
• contains
  • sugar fructose for energy
  • prostaglandins that cause uterus to contract, may help sperm move along
  • sperm
  • type of lysosome containing enzymes to penetrate the zona pellucida, the muco-protein covering of the egg

• head: containing 23 chromosomes and covered by a cap called the acrosome which stores enzymes need to penetrate the egg
• middle piece: contains many mitochondria that provides energy for the movement of the tail
• flaggeular tail: provides movement for the sperm

• erection: impulses from the parasympathetic system (nervous) cause blood to accumulate in sinuses of the penis where the veins that take blood away from the penis are compressed and the penis becomes erect
• movement of sperm: sperm stored in the vas deferens combines with other components of semen (from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, & Cowper's gland) and move to the urethra
• ejaculation: urethral wall muscles undergo peristalsis causing ejaculation from the urethral opening in the glans penis

• Usually about 400-600 mil sperm
• low sperm count typically 35-50 mil sperm, infertility
• relaxation & refractory period: a period of time after ejaculation when stimulation does not bring about an erection. The length of refractory period increases with age

• hypothalamus:
  • ultimate control of the testes' sexual function
  • secretes GnRh
• Anterior Pituitary gland
  • releases two gonadotropic hormones, FSH & LH

• secreted by the hypothalamus
• stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete gonadtropic hormones

• follicle stimulating hormone
• present in both males & females
• promotes the production of sperm in the seminiferous tubules
• promotes secretion of inhibin

• present in both males & females
• controls the production of testosterone by the interstitial cells
• As the amount of LH rises there is an increased production of testosterone and other androgens in the interstitial cells

• As testosterone amounts rises to a certain level in the blood, LH & GnRH production decreases
• When testosterone amounts lower in the blood, LH & GnRH production rises to restore testosterone levels to normal
• As tubules produce sperm they also produce inhibin
  • When inhibin amounts rise, FSH production falls
• Large rise in basal level of testosterone at puberty

• tube that moves eggs
• normal site of fertilization
• When eggs are expelled from the ovaries they are collected by extensions of the oviduct called fimbriae. Cilia lining the oviduct sweep the eggs towards the uterus

• normal site of implantation and fetal development
• muscular organ
• LIning called the endometrium has two layers
  • a basal layer of reproducing cells
  • a functional layer that varies in thickness depending on the stage of the menstrual cycle

• birth canal and the female organ involved in intercourse
• Lined by mucous membrane 
• very elastic walls to walls to facilitate sexual intercourse and birth

• sacs in the ovaries containing oocytes
• primary follicles: where primary oocytes undergo meiosis I
• secondary follicles: where secondary oocytes undergo meiosis II if they are fertilized by a sperm cell 
• graafian follicle: where oocytes develop

• the egg consists of the secondary oocyte surrounded by the zona pellucida
• The left over structures in the follicle become the corpus luteum when the follicle has lost the oocyte
• If fertilization occurs the corpus luteum last 3-6 months; other wise it disintegrates after a/b 10 days. 
• Follicles and the corpus luteum are responsible for secreting female sex hormones (used to detect if a woman is pregnant)

• The process o egg formation

1. A primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I and the resulting cells are haploid with 23 chromosomes each
2. The secondary oocyte undergoes meiosis II if it is fertilized by a sperm cell. If the secondary oocyte remains unfertilized it never completes meiosis and dies shortly after being released by the ovary
3. When appropriate the vesicular follicle bursts, releasing the egg

• collectively known as the vulva
• labia major: 2 large folds of fatty skin
• labia minor: 2 small folds just inside the labia major that contain the opening to the urethra and vagina
• mons pubis: fatty skin covered in coarse hair
• clitoris: erectile organ and site of intense sexual feeling

• Hypothalamus
  • secretes GnRH which stimulates the Anterior Pituitary gland to produce FSH and LH
• Anterior Pituitary gland
  • secretes the gonadotropic hormones FSH and LH which control the ovarian cycle
• Ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone

• Estrogen at puberty stimulates maturation of uterus and vagina, wider hips, more body fat
• Needed for normal breast development

• Progesterone stimulates the thickening of endometrium in latter part of each menstrual cycle.
• needed for normal breast development

• average time is 28 days
• days 1-13: FSH from anterior pituitary increases under the influence of GnRH
  • causes follicle to develop from primary --> secondary --> Graafian
  • causes increased secretion of estrogen by the follicles. When estrogen levels in the bloodstream rise, secretion of FSh by AP decreases (negative feedback)
• day 14: Ovulation occurs 
• days 15-28: anterior pituitary increases secretion of LH. LH maintains the corpus luteum which secretes progesterone. When there is an increased progesterone in blood, the Anterior Pituitary lowers the production of LH
• day 28: in absence of fertilization: menstruation. At this point both estrogen and progesterone levels are low

• days 1-5: estrogen and progesterone are still low; endometrium disentegrates and sloughs off-menstruation phase
• days 6-13: the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle
  • under the influence of increased production of estrogen, the endometrium thickens
  • called the "proliferative phase" of the uterine cycle
• day 14: ovulation
• days 15-28, luteal plate:
  • increased production of progesterone from corpus luteum causes the endometrium to continue thickening
  • endometrium starts to secrete a thick mucoid layer
  • "secretory phase" of uterine cycle
  • if no fertilization occurs by day 28, estrogene and progesterone are low

• basic seminal fluid tends to neutralize the acidic vaginal environment
• cervical mucous becomes more watery 3-4 days before ovulation and day of ovulation allowing sperm to penetrate more easily
• egg is viable for 3-4 days after ovulation
• uterine contractions transport sperm most of the way to the egg
• only one sperm is needed to fertilize the egg (now called the zygote

• after fertilization, fertilized egg is transported down the oviduct into uterus; it embeds itself int he endometrium
• membrane surrounding developing embryo secretes human chorionic gonadotropic (HCG) hormone which maintains the corpus luteum
• corpus luteum produces greater quantities of progesterone
• progesterone inhibits motility (secretion fromt he hypothalamus and AP) of the uterus so that no new follicles begin in the ovary

• has components of both maternal and fetal tissue
• location of exchange of gases and nutrients b/t maternal and fetal blood
• once formed, placenta produces HCG, estrogen, and progesterone. With estrogen it prepares the breast for lactation
• shuts down hypothalamus and AP, no new follicles produced
• uterine lining maintained, corpus luteum no longer needed

• between ages 45 and 55, the uterine and ovarian cycles cease
• ovaries no longer respond to gonadotropic hormones (FSH & LH) from the anterior pituitary gland
• ovaries no longer secrete estrogen or progesterone

• most effective form of birth control
• in males vas deferens is cut off and sealed, vasectomy. Only affects sperm content of semen so minimal side affects
• In females, oviducts are tied off, tubal ligation. Laparoscropy makes it much easier.
• Disadvantages of sterilization: hard to reverse.

• combination of estrogen & progesterone given for 21 days of 28 day cycle
  • effectively shuts down FSH and LH production so follicles do not develop

• synthetic progesterone prevents ovulation
  • norplant: under the skin time release capsules
  • depo-provera: injections every 3 monts 

• causes cervical mucus to thicken, fertilized embryo cannot implant
• best for women who've had 1 pregnancy and middle to older
• are at low risk for STD's

• diaphragms, cervical caps, vaginal sponges, condoms
  • most effective when used with a spermicide
  • some give protection against STD's

"Morning-After Pills"

• Used to be essentially a controlled overdose of normal birth control pills
• Blocks progesterone receptors causing uterine lining to slough off, taking embryo with it
• Preven prevents implantation of embryos
• Mifepristone (RU-486) is a controversial drug widly used in Europe to cause loss of implanted embryo

• females
  • pelvic inflammatory disease may block oviducts
  • failure to ovulate (low body weight)
  • endometriosis
• males
  • low sperm count, abnormal sperm
  • disease, mutagens, high testes temperature, substance abuse
  • speculation that environmental pollution by mimicking hormone action has lowered sperm counts significantly

• sperm from male with low sperm count is collected over time and concentrated or obtained from an anonymous donor
• sperm is deposited in the vagina by a physician
• sperm deposited directly in uterus

• retrieves immature egg from ovary using needle
• eggs mature in glassware in lab
• sperm is add in vitro
• 2-3 day embryos are implanted in the uterus of women in secretory phase of uterine cycle
• low success rate 15-20%

• eggs and sperm placed in oviduct immediately after fertilization
• cheaper