Avoidance Learning Response

Is difficult to extinguish because is negatively reinforced

In Wechsler the adult Arithmetic and Digit Span Scale is useful to?  

Assess attention span and concentration

Object Concept

Kids know that object exist even if they can't see it.

Language Development

The fastest rate of increase in vocabulary typically occurs between 30-36 month of age

Piaget and Vygotsky Information Processing Perspective

Assume that cognitive development entails increasing internalization and control of cognitive strategies. This self-control system of learning strategies and skills comes from cognitive development

Overlearning

Help retain information over a longer period of time. Is most usefull when learning is spaced and material is specific and concrete

Kohlberg Moral Development Stage 6

Moral is guide by the principal of conscience

Self-choosen principals that are consider universal

Piaget Moral Development Age 10

Autonomous Stage- children understand games/rules as being flexible and alterable by agreement of the majority

Language development

There is a sensitive period for language development. Deprivation of language can have long lasting effects. This period is sesnsitive but not critical.

Language Development

Family influence> only child tend to display accelerate language development

Principles of Classical Conditioning:

Discrimination training pairing the original CS (conditioned stimulus) with the US (unconditioned stimulus) but presenting stimuli similar to the CS without the US. For example, if the original CS was a dark green light and dogs subsequently salivated in response to a light green light, he would again present the dark green light with meat powder but present the light green light without meat powder. As a result of this training, dogs no longer salivated in response to the light green light.

Pavlov - classical conditioning

A neutral stimulus can be paired with a conditioned stimulus so that it, too, elicits a conditioned response. This procedure is referred to as higher-order conditioning and involves the following steps: The first step is ordinary classical conditioning - a CS is paired with the US until a CR is established. In the second step, the original CS is treated like a US and is paired with a second neutral stimulus so that it also elicits a CR. Note that the CR elicited by the second neutral - or conditioned - stimulus is less in magnitude than the CR elicited by the original CS.

Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning:

The technique known as systematic desensitization was designed by Wolpe as an application of reciprocal inhibition. However, research using a "dismantling strategy" (which permits comparison of the effectiveness of the various components of a treatment) suggests that the benefits of systematic desensitization are actually due to extinction of the previously conditioned fear response rather than to reciprocal inhibition.

Principles of Operant Conditioning:Skinner

Two types of consequences that affect the occurrence of the behavior.

Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again

Punishment decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. 

Reinforcement and punishment can be either positive or negative:

"Positive" refers to the application of a stimulus following the behavior,

"negative" refers to the removal or termination of a stimulus following the behavior.

Operant Conditioning-Skinner  

Positive reinforcement can be delivered on a continuous or intermittent schedule. Although continuous reinforcement results in a quick acquisition of a behavior, it is associated with two disadvantages.

First, providing a reinforcer following each behavior can cause satiation - i.e., the reinforcer loses its reinforcing value because the individual has received too much of it. Second, when behavior is reinforced on a continuous schedule, it quickly extinguishes (stops) once the reinforcement is no longer given. Note that termination of reinforcement from a previously-reinforced behavior often results in a temporary increase in the behavior before it stops. This temporary increase is referred to as an "extinction burst."

Principles of Operant Conditioning:

Advantages of the intermittent schedules are that they reduce the problem of satiation and they produce behaviors that are more resistant to extinction. Of the intermittent schedules, the variable ratio (VR) schedule produces the quickest rate of acquisition and the greatest resistance to extinction. Gamblers playing slot machines are being reinforced on a VR schedule.

Principles of Operant Conditioning:

Avoidance conditioning is more complicated and combines classical conditioning and negative reinforcement. In avoidance conditioning, a cue signals that an undesirable event is about to occur, so that the individual can engage in a behavior as soon as the cue is presented and thereby avoid the undesirable event altogether. For instance, a "Danger - Do Not Enter" sign warns you to turn back and thereby avoid a dangerous situation.

Therapies Based on Operant Conditioning:

Time-out is a type of negative punishment. It involves removing all sources of positive reinforcement for a brief, pre-specified period of time following a behavior in order to decrease the behavior.

Therapies Based on Operant Conditioning:

Differential reinforcement combines operant extinction with positive reinforcement for other behaviors. It is often used to eliminate self-reinforcing behaviors and involves reinforcing the individual for engaging in alternative behaviors during a specific period as long as he or she did not engage in the target behavior. For a child who bites her nails, differential reinforcement might entail reinforcing the child for every ten minutes she doesn't bite her nails but, instead, reads or plays with toys.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies:

(1) Cognitive schemas are ways of organizing and interpreting experiences. They develop in early childhood and may be latent until later in life when they are activated by stress. (2) Each disorder has a distinct cognitive profile. The cognitive profile for depression involves a cognitive triad of negative beliefs about oneself, the world, and the future. (3) Cognitive distortions (e.g., magnification, overgeneralization, arbitrary inference) serve to support depressogenic and other dysfunctional cognitive schemas. People are more likely to resort to cognitive distortions during times of stress

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies:

One of the tools of collaborative empiricism is Socratic questioning - or guided discovery - which is designed to help clients understand and explore their own cognitions. "Can you tell me what you were thinking at the time?" is an example of Socratic questioning.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies:

There is also some evidence that, when used alone, thermal biofeedback and autogenic training are about equally effective and that the combined treatment may be more effective than either treatment alone.

Memory and Forgetting:

(1) Sensory register is responsible for the storage of incoming sensory events such as sights, sounds, and smells. very large capacity but short duration.

(2) sensory register→transferred to short-term memory. limited in capacity and duration. capacity►stores only few chunks of information. In terms of duration, without rehearsal, ►30 seconds. Information -coded acoustically.

(3) information in short-term memory is rehearsed or encoded ►transferred to long-term memory. Information in long-term memory is highly organized and may be permanent.

Memory and Forgetting:

Procedural memory is memory for "knowing how" - for instance, knowing how to comb your hair, hold a pen, and ride a bicycle.

Declarative memory is memory for "knowing that" and is further divided into semantic and episodic memory.

• Semantic memory is memory for general knowledge independent of any context. It stores facts, rules, and concepts.
• Episodic memory is memory for personally-experienced events. It's episodic memory that enables you to recall where you were on your last birthday. Flashbulb memories are part of episodic memory and are very detailed memories of events that elicited surprise, fear, or other strong emotion.

Memory and Forgetting:

The word "mnemonic," for example, can be processed at one of three levels:

Physical level - that is, the shape of its letters;

Acoustic level, or the way it sounds;

Semantic level, which is in terms of its meaning. the third level is the "deepest" - it takes the most mental effort and results in the best recall.

Memory and Forgetting:

To remember the meaning of "negative reinforcement," you might make sure you understand that "negative" refers to the withdrawal of a consequence and come up with some examples of negative reinforcement from your daily life.

contrasted with maintenance rehearsal, which refers to simple rote repetition and is not a very effective technique.

Memory and Forgetting:

A widely-accepted theory of forgetting attributes it to the effects of interference:

Retroactive interference occurs when newly-learned information interferes with previously-learned material. Proactive interference occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning or recall of subsequent material.