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| Purpose: To test the partial report procedure and test the capacity of visual sensory memory. Method: a 4x3 grid of letters followed by a cue(tone) and asked subjects to say what they remembered. Results: Whole report condition recalled 4-5 letters/trial (38%), Partial report ~3 letters with 0 delay(75%), recalled ~2 letters with a 300ms delay(50%), recalled 1-2 letters with 500ms delay(38%)=to whole report condition. Conclusion: We have an iconic store with a very high capacity(we can remember lots of what we see). Iconic store duration is limited to ~1/2 second.(after that we don't remember it anymore). Reporting an answer requires transfer of information to short term memory(Transfer takes time, only some info gets transferred before decay, this process affects Whole Report much more than Partial Report procedures). |
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| Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968 |
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| Purpose: To Show that their are separate short term and LTMs. info is temp. held in STM by rehearsal and it is the halfway point between sensory memory and LTM. Assumptions: LTM is produced through rehearsal in STM. STM and LTM differ in terms of duration, capacity, encoding formal. Method: Used a serial position curve. They gave words in a certain order and you had to remember all of them. Results: First words were remembered well and last words were remembered well but middle words were not remembered as well. Conclusions: The primacy effect was found in serial position curves is consistent with rehearsal.(you say the first word more times than others). Recency effect- due to presence in STM.(no time to decay). Distraction prior to recall disrupts recency but not primacy. |
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| Distractor Task. Purpose: was to see if distractions instead of rehearsal effected the LTM. Method: present words and then do distractor task such as count backwords from 236 by 7s then ask to recall words. Results: memory was disrupted. Conclusion: If you prevent rehearsal, you disrupt LTM.(even when remembering 3 short words) |
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| Purpose: To examine how STM and LRM differ in how they encode information. Method: presented 3 lists of words for recall. They used synonyms, homophones, and control. Recall task was an odd partial report procedure. Results: the Synonym confusion - primacy effect was not shown-disruption in LTM. Homophone confusion- recency effect was hurt-hurt short term memory . Conclusion: STM is phonetic (sound based_ and that LTM is semantic (meaning based) -they encode differently- assumption supported. |
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| Purpose: To demonstrate the inadequacy of maintenance rehearsal.(words that are rehearsed longer in SRM are not necessarily the ones that are stored in LTM). Method: have subjects remember the last word that started with a certain letter. Must rehearse words for different lengths. Had a surprise recall task at the end to see how many words they remembered. Results: They found no relationship between how long the word was rehearsed and it's probability of recall. (ex: resident(3) robot(1)). Conclusion: Maintenance rehearsal doesn't work |
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| Depth of processing. Purpose: examine the effect the type of task has on recall. Method: changed the type of task people did on a word list- All CAPS vs 4 letters vs fit in this sentence- asked to count how many of those groups there were. then asked to recall any words they remembered. Results: Found that the depth of processing had an effect. We encode information that has meaning to us. Things that relate to other things we already know. Thinks that make sense to us. Things that fit into our schemata. Conclusion: the more you relate the meaning of new information to other things you already know, the better your memory will be. |
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| WORKING MEMORY MODEL. independent systems working together. Visuospatial- where things are located. Phonological- sound based info. |
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| Purpose: to examine 1- Do we search in parallel or serial?(all at once or one-at-a-time) 2-Do we search terminally or exhaustively?(stop looking when you find what you are after or no. Method: Presented multiple lists of 1-6 digits, after each list, a probe digit was presented, task: as fast as possible, indicate if the probe was part of the prior list. Measure: reaction time. Resultus: the longer the list the longer the reaction time- it didn't matter if the number was in the list or not. Conclusions: search is serial, not parallel-b/c list length was the factor of reaction time. Search is exhaustive not terminal -shown by lack of YES list advantage(yes and no lines overlap) |
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| Purpose: How practice effects recall Method: Subjects studied SVO (subject-verb-object) sentences 24 times per day for 25 days. Some sentences had fan interference. Fan sentences repeat subjects as objects. They measured the reaction time. Results: With practice reaction time got smaller, however fan interference slowed down reaction time and the fan affect didn't go away. The fan sentences always took them longer to recall than the non-fan sentences. Conclusion: Practice improves retrieval speed but in a negatively accelerating way. Fan interference never completely goes away. Experiment 2: Purpose: To examine mass practice (cramming) Method: Subjects studied sentences (no fan) either 1,2,4, or 8 times per day for 5 days. Results: Found mass practice to help up to only 4 times per day. Conclusions: Anything above 4 times a day is a waste of time to study. It is not the total time spent studying. Experiment 3: Propose: To compare specific practice to general practice. Method: Subjects studied either fan or not fan sentences for 8 days. On the 9th day they got a new set of sentences and studied the new set for a few more days. Results: The subjects reaction time decreased studying list one and the same decrease was shown with the new list and this shows specific practice. Day one with list one is higher than day 9 with the start of list 2. This shows general practice. Conclusions: General practice effect was found because of the difference between day 1 and day 9. Specific and general practice effect found because the improvement across days 1-8, 9-11. The fan interference effect was consistent. Summary: Repeated practice leads to stronger memory trace revealed through faster retrieval speed but this does not increase the probability of recall. |
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| Bradshaw & Anderson, 1982 |
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| Purpose: To see how elaboration effects recall. Method: Subjects read facts about 28 famous people and were split up into four conditions: caused by, resulted in, unrelated, alone. Measured both cue recall and reaction time. Results: They found no differences in reaction time, all are the same. But, measuring cued recall, the caused by and resulted in had best recall, alone had next best, and unrelated condition had the worst performance. Conclusion: The context information facilitates elaboration. |
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| Purpose: To study the generation effect Method: Participants either had to generate a word based on a cue word in a category or just had to read the words. This was followed by a recognition task with confidence rating or free recall task or G vs R recall. Results: Generated words were remembered better than read words in every task. To confirm that the generation effect occurred, the left side words were tested and no generation effect was found for those words. Conclusion: Generation is a powerful and reliable way to improve your memory. It can not work in the classroom. |
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| Purpose: examine the effect of intention. Method: 5 different tasks each had a Intentional or Incidental learning and each had a associated words v non associated words component. The 5 tasks 1)Frame. It is ____ v It is a _____. 2) E-G checking(does it have e in it). 3) Part of speech: Noun, Verb, Adj, Other 4) Frequency of Use: rate on 1-5 scale 5) Pleasantness: rate on 1-5 scale. Also- control group told to memorize list. Results: Pleaseantness group had the highest words recited and sentence frame had the lowest. There was little difference between intentional and incidental. Conclusion: you learn even when you don't mean to. Intention to memorize leads to a much smaller improvement. Greatest memory improvments come from thinking about the meaning of words. Associated words are better recalled than unrelated words(this supports elaborative rehearsal) |
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| Purpose: examine our tendency to chunk visual memories. Method: They laid out ~30 objects on a tarp. Then made sure subjects had memorized it with 2 tasks recreating layout. Then they were given 3 tasks. 1) Free recall- given 15 times to establish chunking pattern. 2) Primed-Recognition - show 2 objects and tell as quickly as possible if they were in the same chunk. 3) Distance estimation - how far apart 2 objects are. that are or are not in the same chunk. Results: elements from the same chunk were decided faster than elements from different chunks. Conclusions: Spatial memories are clearly chunked, in much the same way as verbal memories are. - chunking affects spreading activation.(Decreasing recognition time, decreasing distance estimates). |
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| Purpose: They want to see if Figural and verbal memory are stored in the same format. Method: Used stimuli that are conceptually identical when presented "figurally" and "verbally". They were given a array of figures or words. Then given either an identity, transformend, or different symbols or words that weren't in the origional. The subjects were asked to decide if the symbols/words were in the original. So in identity - yes. in Transformed - yes. In Different- NO. Results: The identity points for both words and figures were the same.(ps- this was exp. 2...in exp. 1 the identity points were not the same so they redid it) When transformed they took longer to decide with the verbal. Conclusion: This showed visual memories are different than verbal memories. Exp 3. Purpose: to overcome 'reading bias' and see if not having them left to right changed things. Method: they did the same exp as exp 1/2 except they added another IV: Good Figure vs Array layout. (good figures had the third figure/word below the other two instead of right next to them. ',' Results: Verbal: the array is faster than the good figure. Figures: the good figure was good figure was faster than the array in identity but when transformed they are both the same. Conclusions: Verbal and spatial memories aka good figure are processed differently. Verbal information is stored sequentially, the spatial text is quickly arranged into an array. However, visual information is stored with the original spatial layout so an alteration for layout is disruptive. |
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| It contains conceptual and factual knowledge. An example is capitols |
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| These memories are from your own perspective |
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| In these memories you see yourself in the situation. We view the memory as a detached observer. |
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| One can't form new day-to-day memories. |
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| One can't remember anything prior to the incident |
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| Synonym for retrieval cue |
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| Getting you to process stimuli without you knowing its a memory task . An orienting task guides encoding by requiring a person to answer a specific question about the target. |
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| Encoding Specificity Principle |
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| Recall is best when there is a best match between the retrieval and recall. The specific way a person thinks about, or encodes, an event determines what "gets into" the engram, and the likelihood of later recalling the event depends on the extent to which a retrieval cue reinstates or matches the original encoding. |
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| Refers to the enduring change in the nervous system (the memory trace). It is how the brain changes through the encoding of information. |
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| The hint or cue that triggers recall |
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| The more recent time periods yielded the most memories, the more distant time periods the fewest (giving subjects a word and having them recall a time about this word and assigning a date) Memories become gradually less accessible with the passage of time holds in many situations- IS THIS RIGHT? |
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| abnormally vivid or complete memory or recall of the past |
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| People have difficulty remembering experiences from relatively recent time periods and less difficulty, sometimes none at all, remembering experiences from the distant past. People may temporarily lose memories of recent days, weeks, and months, while retaining memories of the past. This may be because some memories are subject to a long-term consolidation process that allows them to become more resistant to disruption over time. |
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| Lifetime period knowledge |
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| lengthy segments of life that are measured in years of decades (ex: college, working at a particular place) |
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| Extended, composite episodes that are measured in days, weeks, or months such as going to a football game |
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| Individual episodes that are measure in seconds, minutes, or hours such as a big fight that ended the final football game. |
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| The zones that bind together fragments of perceptual experience. Different kinds of information are linked together by these zones. |
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| The ability to recall precisely when and where an event occurred. It can lead to memory distortion. |
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| The involuntary form of remembering that is triggered automatically by an object or what somebody says |
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| It is more laborious and voluntary. The kind of retrieval that you would undertake if I asked you to try to remember what you did on a Thursday night six weeks ago. It is often operative in confabulating patients: all kinds of experiences automatically spring to mind in response to environmental cues |
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| Retrograde vs anterograde amnesia |
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| People have problems remembering experiences that occurred prior to a stroke, head injury, or some other physiological or psychological trauma- Anterograde: people have poor memory for ongoing, day-to-day experiences. |
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| Have a long-term history of alcohol abuse, show a profound loss of memory for recent experiences that likely results from a thiamine deficiency sometimes linked to alcoholism. The onset of Korsakoff's syndrome is usually accompanied by a transient episode in which the patient suddenly becomes disoriented and confused. |
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| progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of semantic memory in both the verbal and non-verbal domains. The most common presenting symptoms are in the verbal domain however (with loss of word meaning) and it is therefore often characterized (incorrectly) as a primary language disorder |
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| Memory which allows us to learn skills and acquire habits. An example is your signature. |
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| Memory which allows us explicitly to recall the personal incidents that uniquely define our lives. Any analysis of episodic memory must consider the subjective experience of the person who does the remembering. An example is your first date |
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