IDEIA (what is the legislation and what will be required of you as a general educator?)

-Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004

-first special education law adopted in 1975

Characteristics:

(i)with mental retardation, hearing impairments (including deafness), speech or language impairments, visual impairments (including blindness), serious emotional disturbance (referred to in this title as "emotional disturbance"), orthopedic impairments, autism, traumatic brain injury, other health impairments, or specfic learning disabilities; (ii) who, by reason thereof, needs special education and related services. [PL 108-446, Section 602.3 (A) (i-ii)]

there are no strategies.

yet when there are students who need help, the teacher observes and writes down the behaviors in question that happen over time. then the teacher turns those observations into the resourde teacher and then a committee is called and then an individualized plan is drawn up.

Giftedness (be sure that you understand the different strategies for working with gifted students enumerated in the text)

-elusive trait characterized by high achievement in one of a variety of domains.

Characteristics:

-master knowledge or skills before peers in a particular domain and have above-average abilitiy in any particualer subject ie math, science, reading, music or art

-process information more efficiently, learn at a faster pace, use more effective strategies and monitor thier own understanding

-independent learners, require less direction and support from the teacher and make discoveries on their own, solve porblems in unique ways, and show flexibility and creativity in the way they themselves apply the knowledge to novel situations

-posses a high level of interest and intrinsic motivation, an internal drive to learn and master topics within in the area giftedness. pre-school giftedness are usually display unusal curiosity, high level questioning, intense desire to learn. school-age giftedness seek challenges, exhitib boredom at tasks they consider easy, high personal standards for performance, sometimes to point perfectionism. 

Acceleration- there are two types

1) to move grades into higher grades i.e. skipping grade levels

2) having students work on higher grade material in a few classes, yet still be with the same-age peers for some of their subjects

Cross-grade grouping- the students are with higher grades for math and reading or with peers of the same achievement level

Enrichment- this provides activities that will let studetns broaden their own studies and go beyond what is required

Curriculum compacting- give pre-test of material, figure out what the student needs to learn and only teach the material that needs to be learned

Intellectual Disability (text and http://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/intel.html)

-described by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior expressed in conceptual, practical, and social adaptive skills.

-shown before age 18

General Strategies

Speak directly to the student with an impairment as you would any other student.

• • Involvement with other children: The teacher should, where possible, get to know the non-impaired students, engaging them and providing them a connecting link between these students and the students with impairments. The teacher shouldn't be seen as the person who relates only to the student with an impairment.
  • Modeling for others: The teacher should be aware that his or her interactions with the impaired student will serve as a model for interactions with students who are impaired. This may be particularly important in assisting others in areas such as communicating with the student with an impairment about behavior that does not appear appropriate in science teaching/learning activities.
  • Backing off: Often, interactions occur without the involvement of a teacher. At times, in fact, the presence of an adult may inhibit interactions, and it may be necessary to "Back off" and let things happen on their own.
  • Interactions in the context of school activities: It is important to observe the interactions of the student with others in the learning environment. For instance, what types of interactions occur, and at what times? Some activities are more conducive to getting students together than others. The teacher should note and promote opportunities for interactions, even if that means revising plans for teaching skills to allow for spontaneous interactions and play. Remember that not all interactions are verbal. Cheering together, sitting together and watching an event or doing an activity, or working as a team field or laboratory to build something are all examples of nonverbal/verbal interactions.
• Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.
• Preparation for experience in the learning environment best occurs when all students of different backgrounds and abilities learn and socialize together in classrooms and other school settings. In these instances where all have a chance to achieve and receive instruction designed to develop and enhance successful living within the school and general community.
• Keep up-to-date on the student's accomplishments in therapy.
• Never assess a student's capabilities solely on the basis of their IQ or other standardized test scores (especially at the limits of the IQ definition).
• Each student with an impairment needs to be in an age/achievement appropriate learning environment with peers who are not impaired.
• After some time in the learning environment, which includes a mentally impaired student, the teacher, as an observer, should record the behavior that varies from the "norm" and which may indicate the need for referral for counseling and/or psychological intervention including drug therapy, if necessary.
• Develop a protocol for the student to tell you when he/she anticipates a need for assistance.
• When it appears that a student needs help, ask if you can help. Accept a "No Thank You" graciously.
• Encourage classmates to accept the student with a mental impairment.
• Be aware that a student with an impairment may frequently be treated with therapeutic medications that affect performance and speed.
• Acknowledge that high, but realistic, expectations should be maintained to encourage full realization of social and educational potential.
• Personal interactions with mentally impaired students:
• Learning strategies, such as mnemonics, provide quite good ways to access information, It can be an essential component in learning for many students with disabilities (a mnemonic is defined as a word, sentence, picture, device, or technique for improving or strengthening memory).

Learning Disabilities (text and http://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/learning.html)

-largest represented group

-meeans a disorder in one or more or the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.

-includes conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and development aphasia, 

-does NOT include a learning problem that is primary the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, environmental, cultural, or economical disadvantages. [PL 108-446, Section 602.30 (A-C)]

• Always ask questions in a clarifying manner, then have the students with learning disabilities describe his or her understanding of the questions.
• Use an overhead projector with an outline of the lesson or unit of the day.
• Reduce course load for student with learning disabilities.
• Provide clear photocopies of your notes and overhead transparencies, if the student benefits from such strategies.
• Provide students with chapter outlines or study guides that cue them to key points in their readings.
• Provide a detailed course syllabus before class begins.
Ask questions in a way that helps the student gain confidence.
• Keep oral instructions logical and concise. Reinforce them with a brief cue words.
Repeat or re-word complicated directions.
• Frequently verbalize what is being written on the chalkboard.
• Eliminate classroom distractions such as, excessive noise, flickering lights, etc.
• Outline class presentations on the chalkboard or on an overhead transparency.
Outline material to be covered during each class period unit. (At the end of class, summarize the important segments of each presentation.)
• Establish the clarity of understanding that the student has about class assignments.
• Give assignments both in written and oral form.
• Have more complex lessons recorded and available to the students with learning disabilities.
• Have practice exercises available for lessons, in case the student has problems.
• Have students with learning disabilities underline key words or directions on activity sheets (then review the sheets with them).
• Have complex homework assignments due in two or three days rather than on the next day.
• Pace instruction carefully to ensure clarity.
• Present new and or technical vocabulary on the chalkboard or overhead.
• Provide and teach memory associations (mnemonic strategies).
• Support one modality of presentation by following it with instruction and then use another modality.
• Talk distinctly and at a rate that the student with a learning disability can be follow.
• Technical content should be presented in small incremental steps.
• Use plenty of examples, oral or otherwise, in order to make topics more applied.
• Use straight forward instructions with step-by-step unambiguous terms. (Preferably, presented one at a time).
• Write legibly, use large type; do not clutter the blackboard with non-current / non-relevant information.
• Use props to make narrative situations more vivid and clear.
• Assist the student, if necessary, in borrowing classmates' notes.
• Consider cross-age or peer tutoring if the student appears unable to keep up with the class pace or with complex subject matter. The more capable reader can help in summarizing the essential points of the reading or in establishing the main idea of the reading.

Dyslexia

– a language-based disability in which a person has trouble understanding written words. It may also be referred to as reading disability or reading disorder.

• Of value to all children in the class is an outline of what is going to be taught in the lesson, ending the lesson with a resume of what has been taught. In this way information is more likely to go from short term memory to long term memory.
• When homework is set, it is important to check that the child correctly writes down exactly what is required. Try to ensure that the appropriate worksheets and books are with the child to take home.
• In the front of the pupils' homework book get them to write down the telephone numbers of a couple of friends. Then, if there is any doubt over homework, they can ring up and check, rather than worry or spend time doing the wrong work.
• Make sure that messages and day to day classroom activities are written down, and never sent verbally. i.e. music, P. E. swimming etc.
• Make a daily check list for the pupil to refer to each evening. Encourage a daily routine to help develop the child's own self-reliance and responsibilities.
• Encourage good organizational skills by the use of folders and dividers to keep work easily accessible and in an orderly fashion.
• Break tasks down into small easily remembered pieces of information.
• If visual memory is poor, copying must be kept to a minimum. Notes or handouts are far more useful.
• Seat the child fairly near the class teacher so that the teacher is available to help if necessary, or he can be supported by a well-motivated and sympathetic classmate.

Copying from the blackboard:

• Use different colour chalks for each line if there is a lot of written information on the board, or underline every second line with a different coloured chalk.
• Ensure that the writing is well spaced.
• Leave the writing on the blackboard long enough to ensure the child doesn't rush, or that the work is not erased from the board before the child has finished copying.

Reading:

• A structured reading scheme that involves repetition and introduces new words slowly is extremely important. This allows the child to develop confidence and self esteem when reading.
• Don't ask pupils to read a book at a level beyond their current skills, this will instantly demotivate them. Motivation is far better when demands are not too high, and the child can actually enjoy the book. If he has to labour over every word he will forget the meaning of what he is reading.
• Save the dyslexic child the ordeal of having to 'read aloud in class'. Reserve this for a quiet time with the class teacher. Alternatively, perhaps give the child advanced time to read pre-selected reading material, to be practiced at home the day before. This will help ensure that the child is seen to be able to read out loud, along with other children
• Real books should also be available for paired reading with an adult, which will often generate enthusiasm for books. Story tapes can be of great benefit for the enjoyment and enhancement of vocabulary. No child should be denied the pleasure of gaining access to the meaning of print even if he cannot decode it fully.
• Remember reading should be fun.

Spelling:

• Many of the normal classroom techniques used to teach spellings do not help the dyslexic child. All pupils in the class can benefit from structured and systematic exposure to rules and patterns that underpin a language.
• Spelling rules can be given to the whole class. Words for class spelling tests are often topic based rather than grouped for structure. If there are one or two dyslexics in the class, a short list of structure-based words for their weekly spelling test, will be far more helpful than random words. Three or four irregular words can be included each week, eventually this should be seen to improve their free-writing skills.
• All children should be encouraged to proof read, which can be useful for initial correction of spellings. Dyslexics seem to be unable to correct their spellings spontaneously as they write, but they can be trained to look out for errors that are particular to them.
• Remember, poor spelling is not an indication of low intelligence.

Maths:

• Maths has its own language, and this can be the root of many problems. Whilst some dyslexic students are good at maths, it has been estimated that around 90% of dyslexic children have problems in at least some areas of maths. General mathematical terminology words need to be clearly understood before they can be used in calculations, e.g. add, plus, sum of, increase and total, all describe a single mathematical process. Other related difficulties could be with visual/perceptual skills, directional confusion, sequencing, word skills and memory. Dyslexic students may have special difficulties with aspects of maths that require many steps or place a heavy load on the short-term memory, e.g. long division or algebra.
• The value of learning the skills of estimation cannot be too strongly stressed for the dyslexic child. Use and encourage the use of estimation. The child should be taught to form the habit of checking his answers against the question when he has finished the calculation, i.e. is the answer possible, sensible or ludicrous?
• When using mental arithmetic allow the dyslexic child to jot down the key number and the appropriate mathematical sign from the question.
• Encourage pupils to verbalize and to talk their way through each step of the problem. Many children find this very helpful.
• Teach the pupil how to use the times table square and encourage him to say his workings out as he uses it.
• Encourage a dyslexic child to use a calculator. Make sure he fully understand how to use it. Ensure that he has been taught to estimate to check his calculations. This is a way of 'proof reading' what he does.
• Put key words on a card index system or on the inside cover of the pupils maths book so it can be used for reference and revision.
• Rehearse mathematical vocabulary constantly, using multi sensory/kinesthetic methods.
• Put the decimal point in red ink. It helps visual perception with the dyslexic child.

Handwriting:

• Reasons for poor handwriting at any age can be poor motor control, tension, badly formed letters, speed etc. A cursive joined style is most helpful to children with dyslexic problems. Encourage the children to study their writing and be self-critical. Get them to decide for themselves where faults lie and what improvements can be made, so that no resentment is built up at yet another person complaining about their written work.
• Discuss the advantages of good handwriting and the goals to be achieved with the class. Analyze common faults in writing, by writing a few well chosen words on the board for class comment.
• Make sure a small reference chart is available to serve as a constant reminder for the cursive script in upper and lower case.
• If handwriting practice is needed it is essential to use words that present no problem to the dyslexic child in terms of meaning or spelling.
• Improvement in handwriting skills can improve self confidence, which in turn reflects favorably throughout a pupil's work.

Marking of work:

• Credit for effort as well as achievement are both essential. This gives the pupil a better chance of getting a balanced mark. Creative writing should be marked on context.
• Spelling mistakes pinpointed should be those appropriate to the child's level of spelling. Marking should be done in pencil and have positive comments.
• Try not to use red pens to mark the dyslexic child's work. There's nothing more disheartening for the child than to have work returned covered in red ink, when they've inevitably tried harder than their peers to produce the work.
• Only ask a pupil to rewrite a piece of work that is going to be displayed. Rewriting pages for no reason at all is soul destroying as usually much effort will have already been put into the original piece of work.

Homework:

• By the end of a school day a dyslexic child is generally more tired than his peers because everything requires more thought, tasks take longer and nothing comes easily. More errors are likely to be made. Only set homework that will be of real benefit to the child.
• In allocating homework and exercises that may be a little different or less demanding, it is important to use tact. Self-esteem is rapidly undermined if a teacher is underlining the differences between those with difficulties and their peers. However, it should also be remembered that far more effort may be needed for a dyslexic child to complete the assignment than for their peers.
• Set a limit on time spent on homework, as often a dyslexic child will take a lot longer to produce the same work that another child with good literacy skills may produce easily.

Integration:

• A dyslexic child's ability to write down thoughts and ideas will be quite different from the level of information the child can give verbally. For successful integration, the pupil must be able to demonstrate to the teacher that he knows the information and where he is in each subject. Be prepared to accept verbal descriptions as an alternative to written descriptions if appropriate.
  
  Alternative ways of recording should be looked at, such as :
  • The use of computers for word processing.
  • Audio tapes for recording lessons that can then be written up at a later stage.
  • Written record of the pupil's verbal account, or voice activated software can be used.
• More time should be allocated for completion of work because of the extra time a dyslexic child needs for reading, planning, rewriting and proofreading their work.
• For a dyslexic child the feeling of being 'different' can be acute when faced with the obvious and very important need of 'specialist' help for his literacy and possibly mathematical skills. Some specialist methods can be incorporated into the classroom so all children can benefit from them, thus reducing the feeling of 'difference'.

Dyscalculia

-a mathematical disability in which a person has a difficult time solving arithmetic problems and grasping math concepts.

Reduce interference between concepts or applications of rules and
strategies by separating practice opportunities until the discriminations
between them are learned.

Make new learning meaningful by relating practice of subskills to the
performance of the whole task, and by relating what the student has
learned about mathematical relationships to what the student will learn
next.

Dysgraphia

– a writing disability in which a person finds it hard to form letters or write within a defined space.

• Always ask questions in a clarifying manner, then have the students with learning disabilities describe his or her understanding of the questions.
• Use an overhead projector with an outline of the lesson or unit of the day.
• Reduce course load for student with learning disabilities.
• Provide clear photocopies of your notes and overhead transparencies, if the student benefits from such strategies.
• Provide students with chapter outlines or study guides that cue them to key points in their readings.
• Provide a detailed course syllabus before class begins.
Ask questions in a way that helps the student gain confidence.
• Keep oral instructions logical and concise. Reinforce them with a brief cue words.
Repeat or re-word complicated directions.
• Frequently verbalize what is being written on the chalkboard.
• Eliminate classroom distractions such as, excessive noise, flickering lights, etc.
• Outline class presentations on the chalkboard or on an overhead transparency.
Outline material to be covered during each class period unit. (At the end of class, summarize the important segments of each presentation.)
• Establish the clarity of understanding that the student has about class assignments.
• Give assignments both in written and oral form.
• Have more complex lessons recorded and available to the students with learning disabilities.
• Have practice exercises available for lessons, in case the student has problems.
• Have students with learning disabilities underline key words or directions on activity sheets (then review the sheets with them).
• Have complex homework assignments due in two or three days rather than on the next day.
• Pace instruction carefully to ensure clarity.
• Present new and or technical vocabulary on the chalkboard or overhead.
• Provide and teach memory associations (mnemonic strategies).
• Support one modality of presentation by following it with instruction and then use another modality.
• Talk distinctly and at a rate that the student with a learning disability can be follow.
• Technical content should be presented in small incremental steps.
• Use plenty of examples, oral or otherwise, in order to make topics more applied.
• Use straight forward instructions with step-by-step unambiguous terms. (Preferably, presented one at a time).
• Write legibly, use large type; do not clutter the blackboard with non-current / non-relevant information.
• Use props to make narrative situations more vivid and clear.
• Assist the student, if necessary, in borrowing classmates' notes.
• Consider cross-age or peer tutoring if the student appears unable to keep up with the class pace or with complex subject matter. The more capable reader can help in summarizing the essential points of the reading or in establishing the main idea of the reading.

Auditory Processing Disorder

-sensory disabilities in which a person has difficulty understanding language despite normal hearing

Visual Processing Disorder

-sensory disabilities in which a person has difficulty understanding language despite normal vision

Visual processing disorder is when the brain has difficulty interpreting the images a person sees. It is often a significant factor in dyslexia, as this person will have trouble focusing on visual images, recognizing letters, and visual tracking. Some of the other signs of visual processing disorder are:

• asking for verbal directions despite the presence of clear written directions
• missing visual details or the overall concept in a picture
• confusion or agitation working with material that is too stimulating
• problems reading and spelling words that are not phonetic
• frequently losing their place when reading
• recognizing the important information in assignments and tests

Since a vast majority of schoolwork centers around a person's aptitude for correctly processing visual images, this disorder can be extremely challenging for the student. There are things that can be done in the class and at home to strengthen weaknesses with visual processing.

Strategies to help the student with visual processing disorder function in the classroom can include providing writing paper with darker lines, giving assignments that have been broken down into small steps rather than presenting them with a large project, having them use a ruler as a reading guide, and allowing them to use a tape recorder during lectures. If you allow them to use a highlighter be sure you tell them what information is important enough to highlight. These modifications are necessary to help the student compensate for their disability but there are also activities that can strengthen their areas of weakness. These activities can be done in the classroom as well as at home.

Activities should use as many of the multiple intelligences as possible.This will help ensure the student with a disability will have a better chance of understanding the lesson and it will reinforce the lesson for the other students in the class. Hands-on activities that use multiple senses are very effective.

Games that ask students to describe how two pictures are different help build visual discrimination. Matching shapes are also a good way to strengthen visual discrimination. Both of these games can increase in difficulty as ability increases.

There are many fun games that can be played to address visual memory. Pair students and give them an allotted time to study their partner. When time is up, have one student turn their back while the other student changes something about their appearance. Is the change noticed? The same idea can be used by lining up a set of objects. Allow the student time to study the objects before you put them back in a box. Have the student either describe the order of the objects or line them up in the correct order themselves. One more game to increase visual memory is the one we have all played in which we lay cards face down and try to match them up.

Visual figure processing is the ability to comprehend shapes, figures, and symbols. Hidden pictures and books such as Where's Waldo? are fun ways to address this difficulty. Mazes can be used to help with tracking issues. Encourage your student to progress to visually (no fingers!) working the maze. This can be a challenge for anyone.

Nonverbal Learning Disabilities

-a neurological disorder which originates in the right hemisphere of the brain, causing problems with visual-spatial, intuitive, organizational, evaluative and holistic processing functions.

To avoid unintentional social blunders,
NLD children benefit from a structured
and supportive environment.
NLD children should be helped to
understand the nature of their disorder,
their strengths and weaknesses and ways of
coping. They need to know that there is
always a safe place, both in school and at
home, and a specific person with whom
they can talk about social and other issues.
Encourage independence gradually,
making sure that supports are not removed
before the child is ready.
Use language, the area of notable
strength, to clarify questions and explain
and interpret visual information. Many
NLD children have specific and unusual
passions. Don't avoid them; instead help a
child learn more, research more and read
more in those areas. As the child learns in
his interest area, he will read material at
higher levels.
Since NLD children often have motor
coordination in addition to visual and
spatial difficulties, they may have problems
with team sports. Encouraging an
individual sport is advisable.
Specific strategies in school
Make sure the classroom environment is
not too visually stimulating.
The child may need a parent, a buddy or
a teacher assistant to serve as a scribe for
written assignments, such as book reports.
With lengthy assignments, the child should
learn to break down the assignment into
meaningful chunks.
Tasks that require folding, cutting or
arranging materials in a visual spatial
manner require considerable assistance and
may need to be broken down or, in some
cases, eliminated.
Once the child has developed keyboarding
skills, a laptop or word processor
should be a bypass strategy for notetaking
or essay writing.
Children with visual spatial difficulties
and verbal strengths should be taught
verbal mediation (self-talk). Teachers
should model talk about maps, charts and

graphs as well as the steps needed to
perform a motor activity.
To enhance math ability, use real life
examples, lots of verbal explanation and
hands-on experiences. Children with computational
math difficulties may need to
write problems on graph paper or ruled
looseleaf paper held sideways to form
columns and provide spatial structure.
A child with poor attention may need
permission to take frequent breaks as she
develops her ability to focus attention and
concentrate.
Extra time and/or a buddy to get places
are helpful for some NLD children with
spatial difficulties.
Each child should be encouraged to
generalize what he has learned. As he
develops his knowledge base, he may take
risks in his thinking, using old information
in a new way to fit the new concepts
he is learning or may attach new
meaning to the old knowledge base.
Build opportunities for the NLD child
to be a leader with other children, in small
groups initially.
The NLD child will benefit from cooperative
learning when grouped with
good role models, but "discovery learning"
is rarely the preferred method of
instruction.
All in all, it takes a team - the parents,
the child, and the school - to make the life
of a child with a Nonverbal Learning
Disability a fruitful one.

ADHD (text and/or http://www.ldonline.org/adhdbasics)

-Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

• Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.
• Student monitoring, self management, discipline, and encouragement can be a very important aspect for academic success. Below are the two basic aspects of AD/HD facilitation.

• Self-monitoring techniques can be very effective in the school setting. Self-monitoring of attention involves cueing the student so that he/she can determine how well he/she is attending to the task at hand. Cueing is often done by providing an audio tone such as a random beep, timer, or the teacher can give the cue. The student then notes whether he/she was on or off task on a simple recording sheet. Self-monitoring techniques are more likely to be effective when tied to rewards and accuracy checks.

• Behavior management techniques must often be used in the learning environment. By examining a student's specific problem behavior, understanding it's antecedents and consequences, teachers can help students with AD/HD to develop behaviors that lead to academic and social successes.

• Provide supervision and discipline:
  • Monitor proper behavior frequently and immediately direct the student to an appropriate behavior.
  • Enforce classroom rules consistently.
  • Avoid ridicule and criticism. Remember that students with AD/HD have difficulty staying in control.

• Providing Encouragement:
  • Reward more than punish.
  • Immediately praise any and all good behavior and performance.
  • Change rewards if they are not effective in motivating behavioral change.
  • Find alternate ways to encourage the AD/HD students.
  • Teach the student to reward himself or herself. Encourage positive self-talk (e.g., "You did very well remaining in your seat today. How do you feel about that?"). This encourages the student to think positively about himself or herself.

• Bring to the student's attention science role model who has a disability similar to that of the student with an impairment. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.
• Reduce the amount of materials present during activities by having the student put away unnecessary items. Have a special place for tools, materials, and books.
• Reward more than you punish, especially with positive reinforcers.
• Try to be patient with an AD/HD student.
• Seat students with AD/HD in the front near the teacher with their backs to the rest of the class. Be sure to include them as part of the regular class seating.
• Place these students up front with their backs to the rest of the class to keep other students out of view.
• Surround students with AD/HD with good peer models, preferably students whom the AD/HD student views as significant peers.
• Encourage peer tutoring and cooperative/collaborative learning.
• A class that has a low student-teacher ratio will be helpful to a student with AD/HD.
• Avoid all distracting stimuli. Try not to place students with AD/HD near air conditioners, high traffic areas, heaters, doors, windows, etc.
• Avoid transitions, physical relocation, changes in schedule, and disruptions.
• Be creative! Produce a somewhat stimuli-reduced study area with a variety of science activities. Let all students have access to this area.
• Encourage parents to set up appropriate study space at home, with set times and routines established for study. Also, use this home area for parental review of completed homework, and periodic notebook and/or book bag organization.
• Educational, psychological, and/or neurological testing is recommended to determine learning style, cognitive ability, and to rule out any learning disability (LD is common in about 30% of students with AD/HD).
• A private tutor and/or peer tutoring will be helpful to a student with AD/HD.
• Have a pre-established consequences for misbehavior, remain calm, state the infraction of the rule, and avoid debating or arguing with the student.
• Avoid publicly reminding students on medication to "take their medicine."

Autism (text and http://www.specialed.us/autism/05/strategies.htm)

Autism is a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first three years of life and is the result of a neurological disorder that affects the normal functioning of the brain, impacting development in the areas of social interaction and communication skills. Both children and adults with autism typically show difficulties in verbal and non-verbal communication, social interactions, and leisure or play activities.

Most signs or characteristics of Autism are evident in the areas of speech or communication (verbal and non-verbal). Many of the signs or symptoms of Autism begin presenting themselves between 2 and 6 years of age.

The research indicates the following symptoms are the most commonly found characteristics of Autism:
The child is unable to coo by 12 months.
The child also does not point or gesture by 12 months.
The child does not say single words by 16 months.
The child does not say 2 or more words by 24 months.
Has lost some of social skills or language abilities.

Other Characteristics include:
No fear of danger.
Over or under sensitivity to pain.
May avoid eye contact with you.
May prefer to be by him/herself.
Has difficulty expressing what they want or need - may then try to use gestures.
May echo words or phrases.
May have inappropriate attachments to objects.
May spin his/herself or objects.
Prolonged repetitive play.
May insist on things/routines always being the same.
May exhibit inappropriate laughing (laughing when not appropriate to the situation).
May display tantrums for no apparent reason.
May avoid cuddling.
May exhibit self injurious behavior when upset i.e. biting selves or banging heads.
An overall difficulty interacting with others.

Strategies for Teachers Working with Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

[image]

•  Role play/model situations (so students can see instead of just being told)
  •  May also video tape so students can see

•  Be consistent
  •  Make sure to keep expectations the same, every time someone is inconsistent it takes 8 times of being consistent to “undo” the inconsistency

•  Foreshadow changes in Schedules
  •  Make it visual by using a symbol or writing it down

•  Use “rules” to enforce concepts
  •  Many students are rule orientated but don’t over use rules, for example you may say the rule in _____ grade is that you stand in line with your hands at your side.

•  Match Student work time to their performance time
  •  If they are able to attend a task for approximately 15 minutes have that much work for them to do (not a lot more or  less)

•  Use alternatives to writing in order to demonstrate competence
  •  May use magnetic words/letters, word processing device, dictating responses, or use symbols

•  Teach Social Skills as part of curriculum
  •  Remember there is no such thing as “commonsense”

•  Understand cycle of tantrums/meltdowns and try to prevent
  •  If you know something is going to set them off, don’t do it, teach student how to handle situation before putting them in it

•  Schedule in down time
  •  May be a 30 second “break” or a 15 minute break depending on student, could be sensory or just a walk

•  Have realistic expectations
  •  Not everyone is social all of the time, not everyone is on task all of the time!

•  Success builds Success
  •  Start a new skill in an area of success first

•  Share success between home and school

•  Focus activities on turn taking/self management
  •  Use visuals to assist (ex.Wait card)

•  Pick a goal and focus on one for each activity
  •  Is the goal the academic content, independence, or socialization

•  Maintain Structure
  •  Try to stay a sconsistent as possible with a routine
    
•  Offer Choices when possible
  •  If two assignments need to be complete give student the choice of which one to do first

•  Use a variety of stimuli in lessons
  •  Use visuals and hands on materials when possible

•  Understand the function of a behavior
  •  Look fo rthe reason behind the behavior, not just the behavior itself

•  Use social stories, role playing, or video taping to make abstract concepts concrete
  •  Try to think of picturing things in your mind or giving a definition of something, if you can’t you need to make it more concrete (ex. Showing what emotions look like, having a wait card, showingwhat “there” is)

•  Teach in a variety of settings for generalization
  •  Introduce anew skill in a variety of places so that the student can see it applies to more than one setting

•  Match visual supports with verbal instruction
  •  Example: hold up a math book when telling class to get out book, write page numbers on board

•  Allow for “wait time” to receive a response
  •  Average processing time is 30-60 seconds, repeating won’t improve comprehension, you need to “wait”

•  Use If/Then and First/Then statements
  •  Example: First complete your math then it’s recess

•  Autism is a reason, never an excuse
  •  Look for the function of a behavior and go from there!

•  LESS IS MORE when it comes to verbal
  •  Even if a student is very verbal, talking too much creates anxiety and makes thing more difficult

•  Stay Positive [image]

Asperger's Syndrome (http://www.specialed.us/autism/asper/asper11.html)

The following characteristics and learning styles associated with Asperger's Syndrome are important to consider, particularly their impact on learning, and in planning an appropriate educational program for the child (7). Children with Asperger's Syndrome exhibit difficulty in appropriately processing in-coming information. Their brain's ability to take in, store, and use information is significantly different than neuro-typically developing children. This results in a somewhat unusual perspective of the world (7). Therefore teaching strategies for children with Asperger's Syndrome will be different than strategies used for neuro-typically developing children.

Children with Asperger's Syndrome typically exhibit strengths in their visual processing skills, with significant weaknesses in their ability to process information auditorilly. Therefore use of visual methods of teaching, as well as visual support strategies, should always be incorporated to help the child with Asperger's Syndrome better understand his environment.

Social Relation--Intervention Strategies:

The child with Asperger's will need to be directly taught various social skills (recognition, comprehension and application) in one-to-one and/or small group settings. Social skills training will also be needed to generalize previously learned social skills from highly structured supportive contexts to less structured settings and, eventually, real-life situations. It is important to emphasize that children with Asperger's Syndrome will not learn social relations by watching other people, or by participating in various social situations. They tend to have great difficulty even recognizing the essential information of a social situation, let alone processing / interpreting it appropriately.

• Tools for teaching social skills:

•  
  • Role-playing various social situations can be an effective tool for teaching a child appropriate social responses.
  • Video-taping/audio-taping both appropriate and inappropriate social behaviors can assist the child in learning to identify and respond appropriately to various social situations.
  • "Lunch/recess club" is a structured lunch/recess time with specific peers to focus on target social skills for the child with Asperger's Syndrome. This strategy can assist in generalizing social skills previously learned in a structured setting.
  [image]
  "Personal Rule" Card"
  • Comic Strip Conversations (8) can be used to visually clarify social interactions and emotional relations (see sample ComicStrip conversations photo).
  • Peer partners/buddies: Specific peer(s) can be chosen to accompany and possibly assist the child with Asperger's Syndrome during less structured social situations and when experiencing social difficulties (e.g., out of class transitions, recess, lunch, etc.). This peer support network should initially be established in a small group setting.
  • Individualized visual social "rule" cards can be taped to the child's desk as a visual reminder regarding appropriate social behaviors to exhibit. Portable "rule" cards can be used for environments other than the classroom. The rules can be written on index cards, laminated, and then given to the child to carry along as visual reminders of the social "rules" for any particular context.

Social Communication - target skills and strategies for intervention:

The following social communication skills (pragmatic language skills) may be focused on for direct instruction, depending upon the child's individualized needs:

• Initiation of appropriate social interactions for various situations through appropriate verbal utterances, rather than actions or behaviors (e.g., On the playground, the child with Asperger's Syndrome should use the words "Wanna play chase?" to ask a peer to play tag, rather than going up to the peer and shoving them);
• Topic initiation of varied topics - not only topics related to high interest areas;
• Topic maintenance, particularly for topics initiated by others.
• Conversational turn-taking across 3-4 turns (reciprocal communication skills);
• Asking questions of others related to topics initiated by others;
• Calling attention to communicative utterances. The child directs his communication to someone by first calling the other person's attention to himself;
• Comprehension and use of nonverbal social communication skills: tone of voice, personal space, vocal volume, body orientation, facial expressions, etc.;
[image]
"Greeting Card"
• Narrative discourse skills: relating past events, retelling stories sequentially and cohesively by including important pieces of relational information as well as referents;
• Greetings;
• Seeking assistance appropriately (e.g., raising his hand for help in the classroom).

• Visual support strategies can be used to teach conversational discourse skills such as turn-taking, topic initiation, topic maintenance, etc. For example, a visual "my turn" card can be used to physically pass back and forth between conversational partners, to visually indicate who's turn it is in the conversation.

Anxiety Disorder

chronic condition characterized by an excessive and persistent sense of apprehension with physical symptoms such as sweating, palpitations, and feelings of stress. Anxiety disorders have biological and environmental causes.

Anxiety disorders are very common, affecting one in 10 Americans.

Team with parents to develop strategies

Encourage completion of activities and assignments, yet allow extra time on

Communicate with parents about what you observe

Develop and follow a regular predictable classroom routine

If possible, decrease homework load

Depression

-An illness that involves the body, mood, and thoughts, that affects the way a person eats and sleeps, the way one feels about oneself, and the way one thinks about things. A depressive disorder is not the same as a passing blue mood. It is not a sign of personal weakness or a condition that can be wished away. People with a depressive disease cannot merely "pull themselves together" and get better. Without treatment, symptoms can last for weeks, months, or years. Appropriate treatment, however, can help most people with depression.

A Quick Checklist For Teachers
If a teacher suspects that a student in his/her class is suffering from depression, the following checklist of symptoms can be helpful in verifying one's concern and specifying those concerns to other parties.  You might even rate each characteristic on a 0 to 5 scale to provide information on intensity to the counselor/psychologist/school-based support team with zero meaning "not noticed" and five representing "a serious concern that is very pronounced".  Also provide examples and evidence to better delineate the concerns.

Academic Signs
__Unexplained decline in grades/performance
__Loss of interest in school subjects
__Giving up easily when attempting schoolwork
__Low motivation and effort, even though functioning at grade level

Cognitive Signs
__Problems concentrating
__Forgetfulness
__Indecisiveness
__Diminished ability to think, analyze, and decide
__Lack of confidence in one's ability to make good decisions
__Lack of energy, feelings of fatigue

Social/Behavioral Signs
__Disruptive Behavior
__Restlessness
__Similar characteristics to ADHD: Impulsive, inattentive, unable to focus, hyperactive
__Reckless behaviors
__Antisocial behaviors (lying, stealing)
__Withdrawing from social contact
__Does not want to participate in activities that are fun for other children
__Doesn't want to interact or socialize with other children
__Alienating peers
__Loss of appetite
__Unreasonable fears
__Looking tired or falling asleep

Emotional Signs
__Poor self-image/concept (one's conceptualization of oneself and the characteristics attributed to oneself...athleticism, intelligence, social ability, etc... are evaluated negatively)
__Low self-esteem (the degree to which one feels good about oneself is low)
__Expresses feelings of sadness
__Expresses excessive guilt or remorse over his/her actions
__Expresses feelings of helplessness
__Expresses feelings of worthlessness
__Talks/draws/writes about suicide and/or death
__Irritable and cranky
__Excessive complaining
__Does not display pleasure/happiness when other children are doing so
 

Further Assessment of Depression
When professionals are concerned about indications of depression, they often segment the youngster's day into three parts: (1) home life and family member interaction, (2) school performance and adherence to after school study regiments, and (3) social interaction with friends and other peers.  The child's level of functioning at home, school, and in neighborhood social interactions is then evaluated.  This evaluation format helps to determine the life areas in which intervention is necessary.

A behavioral assessment (observation and analysis of behaviors/actions) is usually completed to determine the degree to which the child's behavior and functioning level are influenced by his/her unhappy feelings (as determined by a psychologist or psychiatrist).

Consideration is also given to whether the depression is "reactive" or "chronic" in nature.  Reactive depression is transitory and usually tied to a specific event or circumstance in the child's life (death of a family member, divorce of parents).  Chronic depression is the continuing reappearance of unhappiness with some frequency.  This version is more resistant to intervention and change.

Age plays an important role in how a child reveals that he/she is depressed.  An infant may fail to grow physically, the toddler may have prolonged tantrums, the nursery school child may be overly aggressive or withdrawn, the elementary school child may refuse to got to school, and the adolescent may refuse to comply with directions.

In very young children, symptoms of depression may be more diffuse.  These youngsters may be sad and bored, lose interest in activities they once liked, and show an increase in attention getting behavior as a way of communicating distress.  As they grow and become better able to express themselves, kids may describe their feelings with words such as "rotten", "bad", "lousy", or "gross".

The assessment process usually results in a depressed youngster being described in terms of the degree or intensity of the condition.  According to Birleson (1980) there are four criteria for the identification of depressive disorders among the school-aged population:
1. Evidence of recently expressed unhappiness, sadness, misery, or weepiness
2. A history of behavior change lasting at least two weeks, but less than one year
3. Evidence of recent impairment in social relationships and/or decline in school performance
4. The presence of two or more of the following symptoms: sleep disturbance, appetite disturbance, loss of usual energy or interest, reduction in activity, self-deprecating comments, suicidal threats or actions, increased irritability, new somatic (physical) complaints, wandering behavior, and/or depressive delusions and hallucinations.
 

A sign in the psychologist's window: "We make depression screenings fun!"
 
 

Treatment of Depression
 When it comes to treatment, earlier is better.  If depression goes untreated, an individuals may start to feel so hopeless that they become suicidal.  Some common treatments for depression include:

Medication - Anti-depressant medications are designed to correct certain chemical imbalances in the brain.  This class of medicines improves the metabolism of neurotransmitter chemicals, normalizing moods that interfere with children's ability to learn and develop socially.  Anti-depressant medication has been found effective in about 80% of adults.  Researchers believe that these medications greatly help a large number of children as well.

Antidepressant medications like Prozac and Zoloft can be very effective for treating severe depression in children.  Given their effectiveness (as demonstrated in research studies) the use of these and other medications is steadily increasing.  The medications do not make sad children happy.  Rather, they apparently alleviate the chemical imbalance that brings about obsession with sad thoughts.  Less distressing thoughts can now be brought to mind.  The mind is now better prepared to benefit from "talk therapy" (counseling, psychotherapy), and youngsters are better able to convince themselves to enter into activities with others.

While there is concern about side effects, psychological addiction to drugs, and medicating children to alter personalities, these risks must be weighed against the risks of allowing the child to continue without medication.

Talking about anti-depressant medications; Jerry, a fan of the Star Trek series referred to his anti-depressant medication as "anti-matter pills".  After you take them, nothing matters.  ("Anti-matter" is a propellent for space craft).  While Jerry didn't like the effects of his medication, my friend Julie loved her med.  She was taking"Anafranil", an antidepressant with an unusual side effect...it sometimes causes orgasms in women when they yawn.  Julie would  take it before a party and find the most boring people in the room.  She was always the last one to leave the party.

I guess that with all the medications being prescribed for emotional blues, we've entered a new "great depression".  I wonder though whether certain depressed folks ought to stay that way.  You see, I'm a big fan of Blues music.  I'm afraid that if we give anti-depressants to blues musicians, they'll start singing happy songs and we'll lose a whole genre of music.

Psychotherapy - This psychological intervention might take the form of individual counseling, group therapy, or educational groups that focus on learning problem solving procedures (see the link titled "problem solving" on this web site), stress management strategies, and assertiveness skills.  "Talk therapy" attempts to help the person better understand the condition, it's causes, and treatments.

Doctor, I've got this awful depression.   Otherwise, everything is great!

The combination of "talk therapy" and "medication" - Recent research indicates that psychotherapy/counseling alone is relatively ineffective for depression unless medication is administered in conjunction with it.  Combination therapy provides positive results beyond the results obtained from either intervention used separately.  It appears as if the medication creates the mental environment for talk therapy to be effective.

Hospitalization- If the depression is so severe that an individual is unable to function on a day to day basis or develops suicidal thoughts, then hospitalization may be deemed necessary.  In the hospital setting, intensive assessment is conducted, and various treatments tried under carefully monitored conditions that would not be possible in the home/school/neighborhood environment.

What We Might Be Asked To Do To Help Students Who Are Depressed?[image]

Quit telling me to have a nice day!  I've had them and I don't like them.

 Students exhibiting symptoms of depression should be referred to the school guidance counselor or social worker (perhaps via a referral to the school-based support team if you are a teacher in the USA).  As teachers, we can supply invaluable information to assist in the analysis of the condition and development of a treatment plan (if deemed necessary).  We may also be asked to participate in the implementation of that plan which is designed to change the youngster's stinkin' thinkin' (a "brain fart"?).  Some ways in which educators are often involved in the identification or intervention process are:

-Completing checklists with a listing of possible depressive symptoms (such as the one provided above)

-Talking with the student to gather information, perhaps using structured interview techniques (see the links on this site titled "LSI/LSI", "Classroom counseling", and "Non-directive therapy")

-Observing the student and completing behavior rating scales or keeping data (see the links on this site titled "Behavioral recording")

-Administering rating scales to other students to determine their impressions of the student under scrutiny

-Administering a self report instrument to the youngster of concern

-Initiating and maintaining communication with the pupil's parents in order to obtain and provide new information (see the link on this site about working with parents)

-Maintaining communication with the school counselor or psychologist in order to exchange information

-Training the youngster in social skills.  Because unrewarding social interaction with others can bring on or maintain depression, social skills training may be indicated.  Such instruction assists students by providing opportunities to model and rehearse the interaction skills. (see the link on this site titled "Teaching social skills")

-Limiting attention to depressive episodes.  Depressed children often become the object of counterproductive sympathy [image] that reinforces their "down" behavior.   It is important to avoid reinforcing depressive episodes through misdirected sympathy, assurance, and support.  Reinforce positive behaviors instead.  For example, you might direct the student to other topics if depressive thoughts are verbalized. Instead of focusing on the "droopy" behavior, an effort should be made to get the youngster to concentrate on solutions and set goals.  You might focus on teaching the student how to gain attention and support in other ways. (see the links on this site titled "Differential reinforcement" and "What is ABA"...scroll down to the section on ignoring)

-Training the youngster in cognitive strategies for avoiding depressive thoughts and interpretations. Cognitive therapies assume that children who are capable of developing the negative thinking associated with depression are just as capable of thinking positive thoughts.  This thought transition is accomplished through "cognitive change" strategies.  Teachers might help students monitor their behavior (see the link on this site for "self monitoring", "behavioral recording", and "differential reinforcement") to help them notice the effects of their efforts on attaining goals.  Teachers can also provide positive feedback on behavior and assignments, attributing the results to the efforts of the student. (See the link on this site titled "problems with catching em being good).  The focus should then change to urging students to self-affirm how their efforts do make a difference.  You might follow the student's negative self-statements with a request that s/he identify some positive performance on his/her part.  Emphasis is placed on positive and prosocial behavior, not the depressive, negative behavior.

-Planning frequent and activity oriented pleasurable activities that prevent or disperse negative thoughts.

-Administering medication (with parental and administrative permission) or assuring that the medication was administered or taken.

 -Providing success experiences. Perhaps the most important intervention strategy for childhood depression involves ensuring daily successful experiences in the child's life.  These successful events provide evidence to combat negative self thoughts and incorrect identification of reasons for outcomes/results.  Establish small attainable goals for the student and have him/her self monitor progress to notice change.

-Teaching the child to use affirmations.  Affirmations involve saying positive things about oneself such as: "Man, this stuff is difficult.  But I've learned difficult things before when I tried really hard." and "I'm a good person.  I make mistakes, but they're unintentional.  Most of the time I make darned good choices."  The uttering of affirmations can help kids view themselves in a more positive light.  Youngsters can learn to influence their own patterns of self-talk, which can help induce relaxation while reducing fear or anxiety.

I had a friend who bought a calendar with daily affirmations.  It contained different statements to say each morning before leaving the house...Things like "Others are drawn to me." and "I am loved by many." (These things were true, but her multiple sex partners were part of her problem).

 -Teaching coping and change skills. Children can be taught to be aware of depressive feelings and thoughts as they occur.  Many kids can learn ways to avoid or escape this negative thinking pattern.  Teachers and counselors can provide instruction in various behavior change skills to be used when these unhappy times occur.  Youngsters can learn, over time,  to increase their activity level by themselves without adult guidance or encouragement.  They can change their negative thoughts and feelings to positive ones by redirecting their thoughts to pleasant experiences and by using deliberate internal affirmations of self worth.  With the help of a teacher or counselor, a depressed child can create a menu of activities in which s/he can engage when feeling depressed.

-Promoting productive use of fantasy.  Depressed kids can be taught to use their natural childhood ability to daydream and fantasize in a positive and productive way.  A child can be taught when and how to use certain daydreams.  This intentional use of "mind drift" can help the youngster to understand the distinction between fantasy and reality (if that distinction is not yet apparent).

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (http://www.education.com/reference/article/oppositional-defiant-disorder/)

-Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a childhood mental disorder characterized by a pattern of angry, antagonistic, hostile, negative, irritable, and/or vindictive behavior lasting at least six months and occurring more frequently than is typically observed for the child's age and developmental stage. Children diagnosed with ODD do not meet the clinical diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder.

Treatment of ODD usually involves medication, and group, individual, and/or family therapy. Of these, individual therapy is the most common. The goal of therapy is to help provide a consistent daily schedule, support, rules, discipline, and limits, as well as to help train patients to get along with others by modifying behaviors. Therapy can occur in residential or day treatment facilities, in a medical setting, or on an outpatient basis. Therapy can instruct patients on how to effectively deal with ODD and help them learn how to do the following:

• use self time-outs
• identify what increases anxiety
• talk about feelings instead of acting on them
• find and use ways to calm themselves
• frequently remind themselves of their goals
• get involved in tasks and physical activities that provide a healthy outlet for energy
• learn how to talk with others
• develop a predictable, consistent, daily schedule of activity
• develop ways to obtain pleasure and feel good
• learn how to get along with other people
• find ways to limit stimulation
• learn to admit mistakes in a matter-of-fact way

Therapy can also involve the parents. Parent management training focuses on teaching parents specific and more effective techniques for handling the child's opposition and defiance. Research has shown that parent management training is more effective than family therapy.

Stimulant medication is used only when ODD cooccurs with ADHD. Occasionally, children and adolescents with ODD may also have depression or anxiety disorders, and treatment with antidepressants and anti-anxiety medications can help alleviate some symptoms of ODD.

Visual Impairment (http://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/vision.html)

There are two main functional categories of visual impairments: Low Vision and Blind. Low vision students usually are print users , but may require special equipment and materials. The definition of legal blindness covers a broad spectrum of visual impairments. The extent of visual disability depends upon the physical sensory impairment of the student's eyes, the age of the student at the onset of vision impairment, and the way in which that impairment occurred. Vision also may fluctuate or may b e influenced by factors such as inappropriate lighting, light glare, or fatigue. Hence, there is no "typical" vision impaired student. The major challenge facing visually impaired students in the science educational environment is the overwhelming mass o f visual material to which they are continually exposed, viz., textbooks, class outlines, class schedules, chalkboards writing, etc. In addition, the increase in the use of films, videotapes, computers, laser disks, and television adds to the volume of v isual material to which they have only limited access. To assist in overcoming a students' visual limitation requires unique and individual strategies based on that student's particular visual impairment and his/her skill of communication (e.g., Braille, speed listening, etc.). (After: "The Mainstream Teaching of Science: A Source Book", Keller et al.)

The degree of impairment and the student's background and training (like the degree of proficiency in Braille) will affect the usefulness of the various strategies and suggestions. The student with a vision impairment will most likely need assistance in all aspects of science programs. The various strategies given below will work for most vision impaired students--some may not. Accessible description will be necessary for pictures, graphics, displays, or field sites, etc.; the student's identification queries; and differentiation of items where touch will not discriminate; and in orientation and mobility aspects in unfamiliar situations.

• Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual achieved by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.

• A wide selection of magnifying devices are available that can be used by visually impaired students to assist in reading or working with objects that need to be observed.

• A screen reader, low vision projection screen, or an item like outSPOKEN or a similar system can be used to read a computer screens.

• A screen magnifier may be used to enlarge print on a computer screen.

• General Information Access for Persons with Vision Loss
  1. Visual material needs to be accompanied by a verbal description. If you are demonstrating how to use a piece of equipment, be sure to describe the equipment and what you are doing to operate it. Read overheads aloud and describe the content of slides (see note below about large print). In a conference presentation setting, you will probably want to provide all descriptions yourself. If you are showing a videotape, describe the action. If you distribute videotapes as handouts, any action or an explanatory text that is crucial to understanding the text of the presentation should be narrated.
  2. If there are multiple speakers (such as a panel), have each speaker introduce himself or herself to the audience so that the speakers' voices are keyed for the audience as to their identity.
  3. Be certain that your presentation can be clearly heard by everyone in the room and repeat all questions from the audience, prior to answering.
  4. Handouts should be available in large print, audiotape, computer disk, and/or Braille formats. If this is not possible prior to your presentation, note the various individuals' preferred formats and then make your materials available to them within a short time after your presentation.
  5. Large Print * - People who have some functional vision may be able to see print if it is large enough. Prepare print information on white paper with sharp, black ink. Standard print is generally 10-12 point type. Large print is 16-18 point and up, generally an enlargement setting of 160-175% on a copy machine. In the case of documents that already exist in print form, use a copy machine to enlarge each page onto 11 x 17 paper. Try darker settings on the copy machine to increase contrast without producing streaks. Many computer programs offer a variety of font types and sizes.
     (On most newer versions of browsers, you can select Text Zoom from View Menu of the browser for larger view).

Physical Impairment (http://codi.buffalo.edu/archives/colleges/.gasouth/.physical.htm)

A wide range of conditions may limit mobility and/or hand-function. Among
the most common permanent disorders are such musculoskeletal disabilities
as partial or total paralysis, amputation or severe injury, arthritis,
active sickle cell disease, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis and
cerebral palsy. Additionally, health impairments such as cancer, HIV/AIDS,
cystic fibrosis, or respiratory and cardiac diseases, may be debilitating
and consequently, affect mobility. These conditions may also impair the
strength, speed, endurance, coordination and dexterity that are necessary
for proper hand function. Conditions such as cerebral palsy often involve
sensory and/or speech dysfunction. While the degree of disability varies,
students may have difficulty getting to or from class, performing in class
and managing out-of-class tests and assignments.

Going to and from Classes

Physical access to classrooms is a major concern of students who are
physically disabled. Those who use wheelchairs, braces, crutches, canes, or
prostheses, or who fatigue easily, find it difficult moving about,
especially within the time constraints imposed by class schedules.
Occasional lateness may be unavoidable. Tardiness or absence may be caused
by transportation problems, inclement weather, elevator or wheelchair
breakdown or the need to wait for a physician to see them. Going from class
may pose similar problems especially in cases of emergency.

Consider whether physical access to a class room is a problem before or
early in the quarter and discuss it with the student.

Be prepared to arrange for a change of classroom or building if the
classroom or building is not accessible to students with mobility
impairments. Also be prepared to move class temporarily if an elevator is
out of service.

Familiarize yourself with the building's emergency evacuation plan and
assure that it is manageable for students who have mobility impairments.

In-Class

Some courses and classrooms present obstacles to the full participation of
students who have physical disabilities. In seating such students, every
effort ought to be made to integrate them into the class. Relegating
students to a doorway, a side aisle or the back of the room should be
avoided. Even such apparently insurmountable barriers as fixed seating may
be overcome by arranging for a chair to be unbolted and removed to make
room for a wheelchair.

Laboratory stations too high for wheelchair users to reach or transfer to,
or without sufficient under-counter knee clearance, may be modified or they
may be replaced by portable stations. Otherwise, the student may need the
assistance of an aide to perform the laboratory experiment.

Students with handfunction limitations may have difficulties both in the
laboratory and in the classroom, taking inclass writing assignments and
taking written tests. The instructor should be prepared to utilize the
following accommodations:

Encourage use of a note taker or tape recorder.

Team the student with a laboratory or assistant.

Allow in-class written assignments to be completed out of class with the
use of a scribe or other appropriate aid, if necessary.

The instructor is responsible for arranging alternative test dates and/or
times; however, the ADA Office and/or the Office of Disability Services
will administer oral or taped tests or will provide space and supervision
for extended testing time in an emergency. These offices are also available
for alternative testing arrangements.

Out-of-Class Assignments

For students who have mobility impairments or hand-function impairments,
the use of the library for reading or research assignments may present
obstacles. The student may have to arrange with library personnel for
access to book shelves, microfiche and other equipment, or for a laboratory
partner or manipulating the pages publications. Because the completion of
required work may thus be delayed, assignments to be the extension of
deadlines and the use of similar problems of access to resources.
Instructors should consider such expedients as advance notice to students
who rely on special transportation, the extension of deadlines, and
alternative assignments and the use of "Incomplete's" .

Hearing Impairment (http://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/hearing.html)

Over time, the average hearing impaired student shows an ever increasing gap in vocabulary growth, complex sentence comprehension and construction, and in concept formation as compared to students with normal hearing. Hearing impaired students often learn to "feign" comprehension with the end result being that the student does have optimal learning opportunities. Therefore, facilitative strategies for hearing impaired students are primarily concerned with various aspects of communication. Other problems arise because deafness is an invisible disability. It is easy for teachers to "forget about it" and treat the student as not having a disability. It has also been shown that hearing impaired students with good English skills also have good science concept formation. (After "Mainstream Teaching of Science: A Source Book", Keller et al.)

Deaf: "A hearing impairment which is so severe that a child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification, which adversely affects educational performance."

Hard of Hearing : "A hearing impairment, whether permanent of fluctuating, which adversely affects a child's educational performance but which is not included under the definition of 'deaf'."

Deaf-Blind : "Simultaneous hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational problems that a child cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for deaf children or blind children." (All definitions are from IDEA.)

General Strategies

• Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.
• Obtain feedback from your hearing impaired students at every opportunity as an indicator of the student's level of understanding.
• If the student lip-reads:
  • Have students sit closer to the lecturer.
  • Look directly at the student.
  • Speak slowly, naturally, and clearly.
  • Slowing down slightly may help.
  • Do not exaggerate your lip movements or shout.
  • If you have a mustache, keep it well trimmed.
• If the student uses an interpreter:
  • Speak directly to the student rather than to the interpreter.
  • Signing may be distracting at first, but you and the other students will soon become accustomed to the interpreter's presence.
  • Give the student and the interpreter outlines of the lecture or written material, in advance, so that they can become familiar with new technical vocabulary.
  • Interpreters should not give their opinion of a student's progress as this can violate the student's rights.
  • Provide scripts of video and laser media when possible for both the interpreter and the student with a hearing disability (with or without captioning).
  • The interpreter is not to answer lesson related questions from the student with a hearing impairment. The student should direct all lesson related questions to the instructor.
  • The interpreter should stand closer to the section of the chalkboard that is being used by the instructor, thereby allowing the student to simultaneously see both the signs and the writing on the board.
• When writing materials for hearing impaired students:
  • Break up long sentences.
  • Reduce difficult vocabulary load.
  • Reduce concept density.
  • When using a pronoun be sure that the antecedent is very clear.
  • Do not omit words such as: "that" where such words will clarify a sentence connection.
  • Stay with simple coordinating conjunctions (e.g., but, so, for, and) and avoid less common transitional words (e.g., however, as a consequence, nevertheless, although).
  • Keep cause-and-effect expressions in a very simple in form.
  • Keep conditional expressions which influence the meaning of a statement to a minimum (such as; if, when, assuming that, suppose, provided that, etc.).
  • If there is no other way to avoid using a difficult word, include a brief explanation in parentheses, however keep parenthetical explanations to a minimum.
  • If an important basic or technical word is to be taught:
  • Make meaning and application absolutely clear.
  • Use context as a memory aid.
  • For a new term, repeat the word numerous times in a variety of contexts.
• Certain language forms are generally to be AVOIDED:
  • Passive voice verbs.
  • Negative forms of verbs and other expressions of negation.
  • Too many modifying forms, such as prepositional phrases, relative clauses. (If a relative clause must be used, the relative pronoun [who, which, that, where, etc.] should be next to the word to which it refers).
  • Stylistic embellishments, such as rhetorical inversions.
  • Colloquial and idiomatic expressions.
  • Cut wordiness while retaining simple English.
  • Avoid the use of idioms.

Communication Disorders (http://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/comm.html)

Communication Disorders involve a wide variety of problems in speech, language, and hearing. For example, speech and language disorders include stuttering, aphasia, dysfluency, voice disorders (hoarseness, breathiness, or sudden breaks in loudness or pitch), cleft lip and/or palate, articulation problems, delays in speech and language, autism, and phonological disorders.

Speech and language impairments and disorders can be attributed to environmental factors, of which the most commonly known are High Risk Register problems, which include drugs taken during pregnancy, common STD's such as syphilis, and birthing trauma to name a few. Communication disorders can also stem from other conditions such as learning disabilities, dyslexia, cerebral palsy, and mental retardation.

Individuals with communication disorderto the student with a disability as you would any other student.

• Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.
• Students with communication disorders should be encouraged to discuss their functional difficulties and needs in private during the first week of classes and to talk about ways to compensate.
• When it appears that a student needs help, ask if you can help. Accept a "No Thank You" graciously.
• Encourage classmates to accept the student with communicative problems.
• Be a good speech model. This will indicate to all that good communication is desirable.
• An atmosphere conductive to easy and good interactive communication should be established and maintained in the classroom.
• Consult a Speech Language expert concerning each child with a communicative disorder in your class and work with him/her throughout the class.
• Keep up-to-date on the student's accomplishments in therapy.
• Give students with speech impairments opportunity to speak in class.
• Give them time to express themselves, do not interrupt or try to fill in gaps for them.
• Speak to them naturally.

• Maintain contact with student.
• Allow students to tape lectures.
• Provide and interpreter (signed English or American Sign Language) to those who require another form of communication.
• Encourage and assist in facilitation of participation in activities and discussions.
• Be patient.
• Be a good listener.