5000 BCE

maize as a domestic plant

village formations 

Mexico, Central America

agricultural settings

diet of maize

architecture

religion

daily life patterns 

1500 BCE- 200 BCE

reliance on agriculture

worship to natural forces

stratified societies

ceremonial sites

Olmecs (Mesoamerica)

Chavin (Andes) 

200 BCE - 900 BCE

religous rulers

astronomy & math

monumental architecture

Zapotecs, Teotihuacain, Totonacs in Mesoamerica

Maya in Central America

The Tihuanaco Empire in the Andes 

900 to 1521

militaristic states

metallurgy

human sacrifices

Aztec Empire in Mesoamerica

Inca Empire in Andean Region 

1500 - 200 BCE

Coast of Gulf of Mexico

mother culture

"people of the gum tree"

ceremonial sites

abstract writings

calendar & astronomy

export goods & knowledge 

600 BCE - 900 CE

Monte Alban, Oaxaca

people of the zapote fruite

mathematics, calendar 

Cuilcuilco was destroyed.

Teotihuacan emerges. 

200-900 CE

Central Mexico

City of the Gods

Peak 250-700 CE

250,000 inhabitants

great religious monuments 

pyramids of the Sun & the Moon

Temple of Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent

Tlaloc 

250-900 CE

Veracruz, coast of Gulf of Mexico

El Tajin

pyramids with niches

ball courts 

most brilliant

classic & post-classic

250-1500

Yucatan Penninsula & Central America

direct heirs of the Olmec

city state alliances

warlike

fall associated with overpopulation & rivalry & drought 

Mayan city

almost 200,000 people

stele 29.ca 292

high pyramids

highly stratified

kings & queens (some have religious power)

priests

warriors

traders

artisans

producers 

abstract concepts

dynasties

history

almanacs (rituals)

calendars (astronomy)

Bonampak (a mayan mural)

bas reliefs

concept of zero (foun in 4th century)

observatory is a main building 

Toltec invasion ca. 987

Quetzalcoatl's followers 

he drank pulque

committed rape

exiled

founded Tula 

Mayan city

under the influence of the Toltecs

after the Toltec invasion, Maya have more archeticure with central Mexican influences

well-planned city

Kulacan 

1250

internal warfare

pestilence

social revolution

over population

environmental issues

groups from north immigrate to the south

called Chichimecas (dog people)

1200-1521

spoke Nahuatl 

ca. 1300

Lake of Texcoco

Kingdom of Azcapotzalco (city state)

Chapultepec (hill) 

Aztecan

God Huitzilpochtil (hummingbird on the left) told them where to settle by telling them to find an eagle on top of a cactus plant eating a serpent

1325

island in the Lake of Texcoco

had alliances with Azcapotzalco, Texcoco, Tlacopan

in 1428 Tenochititlan is the capital of the state's alliance

nearly 1 million inhabitants all over the region 

militaristic state based on alliances & conquests

secular emperor who was also a military leader 

hand to hand combat

honor

access to client states

tribute

prisoners 

chinampas (plots over the lake to cultivate plants)

Tlalteclolco market:  exchange & barter

Tlatoani - emporer, most important person

Pipiltin - nobility

Pochtecas - traders

Macehualtin - ocmmoners (artisans, peasants)

slaves - prisoners, people who owe money 

school for nobility (Teocalli)

school for commoners (Calmecac)

girls have some school, mostly in relgious practices 

Solar: civil calendar, 365 days

Lunar:  ritual calendar, 260 days 

art used lots of feathers 

environment plays a significant role:  arid coastal plain, highlands

development of strategies:  self-sufficiency, reciprocity

collective labor obligations:  Mit'a (roads, terraces, irrigation system), ayllu (family)

presence of draft animals (facilitate trade) 

Mitmaq- those sent away

basic social group

idenfies with a common ancestor 

also known as Chimen

900 to 250 BCE

Chavin de Huantan - main city

eastern region of Andes, near the higlands

emerged as a trade culture based on draft animals

cities with multilevel platforms, palaces, and public buildings

polytheism

textile production and gold jewelry

influenced the Moche 

Chavin area

1st century to 500 CE

high arid p;lateau of Peruvian coast called Pampas de Juanmana

known for their Nazca lines (color contrast comes from rock removal)

Cahuachi (new city) 

emerged in modern day Bolivia

500-1200

near lake Titicaca

irrigation systems

intense agriculature

trade system based on llamas 

1300-1530

largest empire in the Americas

Cuzco-main city

Ecuador to Chile

called Tawantisuyu (land of four parts)

Pachacuti (first leader who conquested it) 

male conscription (added peasants of conquest to army)

organization of trade and goods (distribution through officers, keep existing productive practices)

roads

couriers

state warehouses

llamas

khipus (a system of knots in colors used for communication)

bureaucracy 

a result of collective labors and draft animals

considers the weather

trade for goods that protects them from the weather inside their house 

Temple of the Sun

Neighborhood of the PUrest

Sacred Square

sun temple

worker neighborhood

nobility neighborhood

main square 

ceramics, metallurgy, textiles

no astronomy on record 

Phoenicians

Greeks

Carthaginians

Romans

Muslims 

Roman Occupation

206 BC - 400 AD

political unity

Christianity

Latin language 

Abbasids overthrew Umayyad (756 AD)

Cordoba as capital of the calphate

administrative system

legal system

Christians recover Iberian penninsula from Muslim control

Sancho 1 of Portugal expelled the Muslims in the 1250s

1248 Castille took Seville 

Portugal

Castille-Leon (largest, agriculture, close-minded)

Aragon

Navarre

Granada 

Henry IV "The Impotent

Lady Juana (daughter)

Princess Isabella (half-sister)

Isabella married Ferdand of Aragon (1469) 

Castille:  agriculture, army, largest kingdom

Aragon:  ocean-oriented trade, labor

marriage concessions 

Henry IV dies

Juana claims drown

1479 Isabella legitimate queen of Castille 

centralization of power:

corregidor- royal agents who collected taxes, spies

grants of lands and titles

Reconquista

Catholicism

Expansion

Inquisition 

militant catholicism

1492 Granada fell in Castillian hands

surrender treaty

tolerance to practice Islam 

in 1502 crown becomes intolerant because they get money for properties 

tolerance

let hte people worship what they please 

Archbishop of Granada 

intolerance

explusion of the Jews (1492)

Edict of 1502 

Archbishop of Castille 

3 estates: clergy, nobility, commoners

corporative bodies had special legal priveleges

mayorazgo- the oldest son who inherits everything

hidalsgos- no lands , but part of society:  title of 'don' 

Old Christians

New Christians:  conversos, marranos (pig in Spanish) 

Allah is God, Mohammed is prophet

pray

Mecca

Alms

Fasting 

identifying

conversion

traditions of social interacton 

conversion or expulsion

Expulsion of the Jews (1492)

Edict of 1502 (expulsion of the Muslims)

Inquisition 

John II recived exiled Jews

Manual 1 took over, conversion or expulsion

1497 - expulsion of Muslims

Inquistion (1547) 

Empire of Mali:  lower Gamba & Sengal River, Royal Court were Muslim, Mansa Musa's Pilgrimmage to Mecca

Songay Empire

began trading gold 

Gao - capital

Timbuktu - center of Islamic scholarship

trade through Sahara Desert 

Kingdom of Benin

Niger River Delta

Oba Equare

cotton, metal goods, ivory, pepper

Portugese missionaries 

regional power

Portugese arrival in 1483

metallurgy and agriculture

alliance with Portugese

slave trade 

land west of Cape Verde Islands is Spains

Portual moves the line 

new offices

adelonlado (nicolas de Ovando) (title)

land grants as a reward for those who participated in colonization

tribute 

1492 - 1509

warfare:  rebellions, natives became slaves

disease

population decreast

interest in the main land 

Diego de Velazquez requested permission of expedition

Hernan Cortez Pizarro

rivalry soon began between the two 

arrival to Cozumel

Jeronimo de Aguilar joins him

Gonza Guerrero leads Maya rebellion

Malintzin's role:  slave given to Cortez, from Central Mexico, speaks both Mayan and Aztecan 

April 1519

Montezuma sent gifts

Cortes started shooting

foundation of the Villa Rca de la Vera Cruz (Rich Village of the Holy Cross)

first city council in Mexico

proclaimed governor

Cortes built alliances with Totanacs and Tlaxcala (Aztec enemies)

mostly natives in Cortez's army 

Aztec ally

more than 5000 men, women and children killed 

sent more gifts

hosted Cortez when he reached Tenoctitlan

Aztecs revolted

 deposition of Montezuma

Cuitlahuac, new Aztec emporer

montezuma killed 

Portugal's explorations

Canary Islands :  jumping off point, sugar plantations, slaves

West Africa:  sugar plantations, slves

India: spices 

ship building industry

migration from rural areas to the  cities

growth of population

revival of trade

sale of ships 

long distance trade

influence of Italian ships

change of lateen sail:  faster, smaller crews, bigger depots

qudrants - used to figure distance

astrolabe

compass

cartography 

Henry the Navigator

Motives:  Muslims, African gold trade, slavery

Port of Ceuta

Madeira, The Canary, the Azores Islands

Cape verda

Congo River

Cape of Good Hope

Indian Ocean and Calcutta 

major slave markets in Muslim hands

1450s- Lisbon major market of slavetrade

150,000 African slaves in Europe 

Juan de la Cosa

Vincente Yonez

Martin Alonso Pinzon (suggest route change) 

Columbus's ships

Nina, Pinta  caravels

Santa Mara  ship 

Hispaniola

Native group:  Tainos or Arawak

Requerimiento:  document required Native submission

Santa Maria sank

first European settlement in the Americas:  Navidad

Grand Admiral of the Ocean Sea - title claimed 

crown's involvement

1200 people, 17 ships

animals, wheat, and grapes

no one at Navidad

European's started enslaving natives

second settlement: Isabella, faillure

Taino rebellion

Santo Domingo-first city in the Americas 

Cortes went back from Vera Cruz

unorganized retreat

back to Tlaxcala 

siege, city surrounded

surrendered due to disease and starvaton on August 13, 1521 

disease

young emporer

omens, use of myths

help of other natives

house, military tactics

translators

brigs (small ships)

weak Aztec leadership 

Maya interested in trade, not submission

gradual conquest 

puritve expedition

he lost power in Mexico (Tenochititlan)

killed Cuahtemoc

Marquiz of Antequacra over the land he controlled 

epidemics

internal indeigenous rivalries

jungle

dispersed communities

Guerilla warfare

indians enslaved

genocide 

first formal expedition to Yucatan peninsula

constant warfare for 25 years

difficult task to impose a central government 

Gonzalo Guerrero as advisor and leader

internal divisions

1545- first effective control of the area

1700s - last tribe as controlled 

Northern Mexico

Provide of New Gabaca founded in 1536

silver depisits encouraged colonization

presidios (Frontier forts)

missions

transplanting of native groups

region pacified 

Alvar Nunuez Cabeza de Vaca

last expedition to Florida

8 years journey

myth of the golden cities

early explorations

Fancisco Pizaro, Diego de Almagne, Hernando de Lugue, want to explore Paname and into Colombia so they get royal consent 

pizarro - governor of Peru

almagre - governor of Tumbez ( a destroyed and depopulated city)

foundation of San Miguel Puna 

death of the Sapa Inca, Huayna Capac

Civil War:  Huascar (his son) was successor

Athalauapa revolved  (had army on his side)

Atahualpa agreed to meet Pizarro

seizure

death of both

new Incan leader organizes rebellion

military strategies

beseige of Cuzco

Manco Incan established in Valcalomba

never fall in the hands of Pizarro 

Almagro claimed the title of Governor of Cuzco

PIzarro's brothers refused

murder of Almagro the Elder

Almagro the youner took revenge

Muder of Pizzaro 

royal officer

pacification of the Incan region after civil war

neutralization of Almagro the Younger

New Laws 

no conquistador can use Indians as rewards

protection of crown to the Indians 

first viceroy (crown rep. overseas)

reinformcement of New Laws

lots of enemies, distrust in the court 

killed when trying to enforce the New Laws 

keeping the colonials loyal to the crown

competition among the conquistadors

maintian order 

keeping power in distance

colonization or chistianization

conquistadors' greediness

population decimation 

reward is land and labor

reciprocity - protection and evangelization in exchange of tribute and labor

church & crown against it: distance, no laws

demographic collapse 

violence (Black Legend)

epidemics 

role of violence (weapons very available):  warfare, exploitation

people thinking Indians were less 

preist against exploitation

Spanish blame rebellions of Indians on him 

participated in the conquest of Cuba

recieved encomienda

wanted to set up a utopian community in Venezuela

joined Dominican priesthood

bishop in Chiapas

wrote books calling for Indian rights

"protector of the Indians" 

influence by las casas

indians are not irrationsal

should be given their rights 

Motolinia

arrived to Mexico 1524

tells king of epidemics

population decrease because of epidemics 

80 - 90 %

1508 60,000 Tainos

1542 2,000 Tainos 

1519  1.5 million

1550  less than one million

1619  1.5 million 

blame it one a cultural difference

eating too much meat

warm clothes

practices being imposed in nature of land

Spainiards destroyed their life 

connection of church, Spanish crown

goal of conversion

defenders of Indians against exploitation 

baptism of tribal leaders 

control that the crown had over the church

promoting conversion in Indies

Patronato Real (Spain)

Padroado (Portugal) 

tithes

convents, hospitals

clergy

right to appoint bishops, archbishops

revision of any papal document 

papal bulls

1501 & 1508 in Spain

1456 & 1514 in Portugal 

live under rules

regula > lines, laws

live in community

convents

vows of poverty, chastity and obedience 

live under control of the bishop

secula > world

live by their own

part of ecclesiastical hierarchy 

medieval tradition

merdicare> to beg

poverty

austerity

Franciscans (kind of clergy crown wanted in America) 

12 Franciscans arrive in 1524

"The Apostles"

humanism/tolerance and militantat catholocism both present

later Dominicans & Augustinians arrive 

many native languages

dispersed communities

conquistadors 

native gods undermined

destruction of temples 

traditional cult in private 

baptise the native leaderss (caciques) because the community will follow

schools to educate and train future preists 

tried to target the young elite 

Nahuatle

Quichua/Aymorer (Peru)

Tupi (promoted by Jesuits in Brazil) 

fusion of Christian and native practices and beliefs

ascetic practices (ex. fasting)

communion

Saints

old cult sites

monogomy 

obedience to the pope

order of regular clergy

Missions:  northern mexico to paraguay, build churches

Elite educations: for indians 

challenged the regular orders succes

council of Trent

Ordenaz del Patronato 

pope

archbishop

bishop

parish preist (local divison)

preist

deacon

pious works:  chantries, schools

rural and urban properties: mortgages

donations

tithes

cash loans

many groups decide to not recognize Christianity

change to original religion when people started dying of disease 

founded Jesuits

main movement in Counter-Reformation 

criollo (Spanish descendents born in Americas)

majority

constant tension between peninsular and crillo clergy 

distance

vast territory

diversity

intention of colonial profit

conquistadors and colonizers ambition 

aggravated by winds and currents

solution:  royal bureacracy 

panama to the US

Caribbean region

Part of Venezuela

Phillipines 

Panama

South America

excluding part of Venezuela 

representative of the king

guardian of the royal treasure

patron of the church

main commander of the royal militia

provision of justice

most powerful person in the americas 

executive head (president)

in charge of defense

divided in provides called corriegimientos or alcaldias mayores

cabildo- smallest territorial unit 

king

council of the indies

viceroy

president (audiencia)

corregidor (corregimendo)

regidor (cabildo) 

overseas colonial affairs

legislative, judicial, financial, commercial, military, and ecclesiastical matters

arranged residences and visits

review of viceroy's properties 

adminstration developed slower and less complex

more regional and less centralized

Overseas Council

factory system 

colonization and defense

collection and submission of revenues

can grant land, name officials, has jurisdiction over  civil & criminal matters

twelve in brazil 

main authority

compares to viceroy

administration

defense

treasury

trade

land terms

subject to investigation at end of term

university trained 

governors (captains)

audiencia - court of appeals

royal magestrates - justice

municipal council

each town has 3 main rules (elected) 

government

tribute

justice

caciques (Mexico)

kurakas (Peru) 

became accultuerated

different ties to the community 

replaced the encomienda

system of rotational labor drafts

communities needed to fill quota of laborers for a prescribed period of time

Indians must be paid

agriculture, mines, workshops

labor counts as part of tribute

beginnings of capitalism 

congregate native in new settlements to avoid rebellions

pacified natives

labor (similar to repartimiento)