When does the use of the plow first appear in Europe? Where? Based on what evidence? 

What is meant by individualizing burial tradition? Contrast your definition to the burial tradition that exsisted earlier in the neolithic. 

Individualizing (personal accumulations of wealth) occur when resources can be hoarded and defended within the group.

Individual burials replace communal. Rich grave offerings, with exotic materials. Round barrows or burial mounds with single grave. Horse related burials and rituals. Kurgan.

Subsistence intensification is putting more time and energy into food acquisition and production per unit of food energy obtained in return (lowered individual efficiency). The payoff is that intensification produces more calories per unit area of land worked (Increased spatial efficiency). Land limited context.

Wiltshire, Wessex. S. England

3000-1500 BC 

Who was Marija Gimbutas?  What did she think about the change from earlier Neolithic to the later Neolithic?

She is a European archaeologist

The Kurgans developed in the Eastern Ponitc steppes around 4000 BC and moved into central Europe around 3000 BC. They gradually overran the old female centered culture and brought in a new language (IE), new lineage structures (patrilineal), along with more warfare and horses, completely changing Europe. 

occasionally battle axes,

spear points, daggers, wrist guards. Later on- gold and copper adornments 

Hungarian

Finnish

Estonian

Basque 

Western Carpathian Basin is the source of the Baden culture (~3400-2800 BC): develops out of TRB and terminal LBK in: E Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, SE Czech Rep. Coeval with late TRB in NW Europe, early Corded Ware and Globular Amphorae. Metal drinking vessels imitating Aegean forms.

 Arguably the cultural center of Europe during 4^th millennium. Movement for many trade materials. Copper and gold mines in the Carpathian mountains. Earliest copper smelting in Europe. Hungarian plain: cattle raising. Two valuable products—metal, cattle—forms links with the rest of Europe.

What material is used to reduce iron and copper ores in the smelting process?

1800-1550BC: Bronze axes are found only in hoards and never burials. Scrap hoards: broken sword handles, axes. Women’s personal hoard: burial jewelry.

1550-1300BC shifts to bronze deposition in barrow graves with inhumations, thousands of barrows constructed, log coffin burials. Burials included the personal objects of the deceased. Horned helmets as votive offerings, all found in water.

1100-800BC cremation and burial in urns, bronze grave goods limited to personal gear like mini swords, most bronze goes to ritual hoards aka votive offerings.

Because the Assyrian empire under Nebuchadnezzar empire was expanding and he took over the Phoenician capital,

They already had a significant port in Carthage.

What is meant by the Orientalizing tradition? Where did it come from? What are some material culture characteristics of orientalizing? What are five characteristics of the Mediterranean wide cultural complex based on orientalizing?  What are the four main cultural groups in the Mediterranean that represented this tradition?

Orientalization” in the Mediterranean. The late 8^th century (700s) BC through early 7^th century. Motifs and craft techniques of Near Eastern (ultimately Mesopotamian) origin adopted by, Greeks, Etruscans, Iberians.
Elements of the Orientalizing tradition: Naturalistic, figurative renderings of people, animals, plants, Friezes, often in concentric bands, showing action scenes: battles, pastoralism, courtly scenes, Cauldrons as symbols of power, community, Winged creatures Use of iron

Sources of the Orientalizing tradition: The Assyrian empire of north Mesopotamia, Syria Capitol in Babylon. Urartu state, Lake Van district of eastern Turkey, Predecessors of the Hittites, but probably different language Assyria was expanding, putting pressure on the Levant culminating in the 6^th century with the actual conquest of Jerusalem, Tyre trade ties, diplomatic relations with Assyrian, Urartian leaders Craft workers may have migrated to centers in the Levant, Aegean

Orientalizating: Result is a more or less homogeneous Mediterranean-wide cultural complex based on: Towns with monumental architecture Specifically palaces and fortifications Intensive agriculture Coinage Literacy Highly developed craft industries Fine, wheel-thrown figurative painted pottery Metal work in iron and bronze Jewelry, beads

Orientalizing: Four main groups distinguished by ethnicity, language, stylistic variations in material culture in the Mediterranean.  Phoenicians and their colonies Greeks and their colonies Italians, i.e. Etruscans, then Romans Iberians of eastern Spain

What was the economic/subsistence basis of Scythian culture?  What environmental/ geographical zone did Scythian culture originate in?

Nomadic pastoralism

Scythian cities: Belsk

Founded in 7^th C BC

Central place where seasonal meeting of pastoral groups with their flocks and agricultural groups with their cash crops

East fort and West fort surrounded by 33 km long rampart.

Ramparts up to 59 feet wide with 23 foot wooden wall and 20 feet deep ditch.

 Evidence for at least 11 separate settlements

Central enclosures housed granaries

West fort 72 hectares

Estimated 11 million days work (West fort only)

That is the same as 6 years non-stop labor for 5,000 people. Just for the west fort.

Evidence for craft production

 trilobate arrowheads, pottery, and iron forging

skull workshop, gilded crania drinking cups

Why is the development of iron making technology not necessarily the most salient defining characteristic of the Iron Age?

The beginning of the Iron Age, it was limited to Jewelry and weapons, so it is not that the use of iron sets the Iron Age apart. Not what causes the Iron age to be set apart,

Direct contact with the Med. Is one factor that did

What are kurgans? What is their significance to the development of European Iron Age culture?

Burial mounds, originated on the Steppes N. Black sea and Asia

 Kurgans

Up to 75,000 cubic meters Over 100 meters diameter

(Compare to Magdaleneberg at 33,000 cubic meters).

Kurgans usually built of sod

Up to 75 hectares prairie (150 football fields) worth of grass.

In prairie would have been visible for miles. Important landmark and defensive position.

shafts for tomb when down between 30 to 50 feet and followed passages as much as 100 feet into the center of the mound

Some secondary burials put in later; in order to do this, had to dig second shaft and try to hit first tomb. Sometimes succeeded, sometimes not.

Famous kurgan excavations:

Ulski Aul northern Caucasus

Excavated by Velikovsky in 1898

contained the skeletons of 360 horses

 Lying in groups of 18 where they had been tethered to posts driven into the floor of the main grave chamber.

Many more (Veselovsky gave up counting) were found in other arrangements, along with a mass sacrifice of donkeys, sheep, and cattle.

According to Daphne Nash, what was the economic and political basis of the formation of the Hallstatt chiefdoms and why might they have declined?

What caused the rise and fall of Hallstatt chiefdoms?

“Push” models:

Hallstatt chiefdoms galvanized or stimulated by Mediterranean trade

Access to Mediterranean trade critical to power accumulation

Prestige goods economy

“Pull” models:

Hallstatt chiefdoms rose due to internal/ local factors

Access to Mediterranean trade simply an effect of this accumulation of power, but not necessary to it

What is the difference between the production and distribution of prestige goods between the Hallstatt and the La Tène periods

Hallstatt: Unique pieces

Tene: More made in stages, and grouped.

What is the significance of the chronological distribution of bog bodies?  What about the geographical distribution?

What and where is the Hallstatt site?

The Hallstatt site:

Northern Austria, 50 km southeast of Salzburg

See Peter Wells, Farms, Villages and Cities, 1984

Excavations 1846-1864, 980 burials

Fairly well recorded, curated

To date, c. 2000 burials recorded

Includes late Urnfield (cremation) and later inhumations

Seriation provided the first good, fine grained chronology of the late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age

Not itself a Hallstatt chiefly center

Adopted artifact styles of other Hallstatt period sites

Wealth of settlement based on salt mining

What is a prestige goods economy?  Why are they popular with archaeologists?

Woman, usually don’t find them in rich chambers

irst direct economic and political contact between Central and Western Europe and the Mediterranean civilizations (Greece, Etruscans, Rome)

first direct economic and political contact between Central and Western Europe and the Mediterranean civilizations (Greece, Etruscans, Rome)

What and where is the La Tène site?

What is the Heuneberg and what river is it located on?

What are oppida and what are the conditions under which they are thought to have formed

Black and red made in Attica in Greece, important trade good into central Europe

Gundestrup cauldron

Furstensitzen and Furstengraben

What and where are the three core areas of early La Tène art style?

Marne: Tributary of the Seine, District of Champagne
Moselle: West Germany, Tributary of the Rhine
Bohemia: Czech Republic, Upper Elbe (Labe) River

What design technique forms the foundation for the La Tène art style?

What design technique forms the foundation for the La Tène art style?

West Hallstatt chiefdoms rise beginning around 600 BC. Coincides exactly with the founding of Massalia c. 600 BC (Greek trade center)

Trade north from the Medit shift from across Alps from northern Italy to up the Rhone from Massalia
West Hallstatt chiefdoms fall when Massalia is eclipsed as trade center c. 540 BC

When Massalia is eclipsed, West Hallstatt chiefs lose their power because they don't have anything to offer to the warrior societies