the end of menstruation in women, usually occuring at around age 50

the first menstruation in girls, usually occuring in the early to mid teens

mating with individuals from the same group

mating pattern whereby individuals obtain mates from groups other than their own

populations that are isolated geographically and/or socially from other breeding groups

- based on observable phenotypic differences

  - provide important info about

     - adaptations

     - genetic drift

     - gene flow

"race improvement" through forced sterilization of members of some groups and encouraged reproduction among others

continuously present in a population

Increase in mass or cells

agents that transmit disease from one carrier to another

ex: misquitoes - malaria

      fleas - bubonic plague

a disease transmitted to humans via contact with non-human animals

influenced by

- hemoglobin

- carotene

- melanin

- genes that have more than one effect

- genes that have different effects at different times in the life cycle

- proposed by geneticist James Neel

- to explain the tendency of certain ethnic groups to tend towards obesity and diabetes

differentiation of cells into different types and their maturation

depletes folate serum levels both in laboratory experiments and in light-skinnned individuals

- allele that reduces pigment in skin and hair

- not present in modern humans

has the ability to absorb ultraviolet radiation preventing damage to DNA

a plant pigment which the body synthesizes into vitamin A, provides a yellowish cast

when it is carrying oxygen, gives a reddish tinge to the skin

a gradual change in the frequency of a trait or allele in populations dispersed over geographical space

the total complement of genes shared by the reproductive members of a population

refering to species composed of populations that differ in the expression of one or more traits

calculated population differences in allele frequency for 17 polymorphic characteristics

- characteristics with different phenotypic expressions

- loci with more than one allele

- milk and weaning

- mutation on chromosome 2 allows for continuation production of lactase

- evolution in E. Africa and N. Europe independently

- the mathematical relationship expressing the predicted distribution of alleles in populations; the central theorem of population genetics

- the population in infinitely large to eliminate the possibility of random genetic drift or changes in allele frequencies due to change

- no mutation

- no gene flow

- natural selection isn't operating

- mating is random

A condition of stability within a biological system, maintained by the interaction of physiological mechanisms that compensate for changes

- based on false belief that intellect and cultural factors are inherited with physical characteristics

- uses culturally defined variables to typify all members of particular population

- assumes that one's own group if superior

- a cultural phenomenon found worldwide

- used to refer to culturally defined groups

- used as biological term, but has enormous social significance

- there will be individuals who fall into the normal range of variation for another group for one or several characteristics

- cultural and biological variations are inherited in the same way

- associated between intelligence, morals, values, economic condition and skin color

- human milk is extremely low in fats and protein

- also provides important antibodies that contribute to infant survival

- may be protective against later life obesity, diabetes, hypertension

poor fetal and early postnatal nutrition imposes mechanisms of nutritional thrift on the growing individual, resulting in impaired glucose resistance throughout life

Humans have a long post menopausal lifespan so that grandmothers can invest in existing children and grandchildren

- comes at the expense of their own reproduction

- examining human hehavior in an evolutionary framework

- argues that natural selection is not limited to physical and physiological responses, but has had an effect on the way humans think

- the study of how natural selection has influenced the way humans and other primates think

- topics such as mate attraction, sexuality, aggression, and violence

- the accumulation of metabolic byproducts and a decreased probablity of reproduction and survival

ex: the reds and yellows of leaves signal stages of senescence

- explains variability in the timing of fertility growth, developmental rates and death of organisms

- principle idea that energy used for one purpose cannot be used for another

   - energy is invested in various life functions

   - identifies central trade off between current and future reproduction

- applied to studies of human behavior and other non human primates

1. prenatal begins with conception and ends with birth

2. infancy is when the baby nurses

3. childhood is from weaning to puberty

4. adolescence is from puberty to the end of the growth

5. adulthood is the completion of growth

- shape of the body (especially limbs)

- in colder climates

  - shorter appendages with increased mass to surface ratio, are adaptive because they are more effective at preventing heat loss

- conversely, longer appendages, with increased surfaces area relative to mass, are more adaptive in warmer climates because they promote heat loss

- body mass (or volume) to surface area

- in mammalian species

   - body size tends to be greater in populations that live in colder climates

- as mass increases, the relative amount of surface aread decreases proportionately

- involved in melanin production

- 2 primary allele

   - original form of allele present in 93-100% of Africans, Native Americans, and E. Asians

   - 100% of Europeans have recent mutated allele

- lightly pigmented skins are necessary outside of the tropics to permit vitamin D synthesis from UVR

- enables bone to absorb calcium

- important for gene regulation

- essential for normal growth of bone 

B vitamin that isn't stored in the body and must be replenished through dietary sources

- pregnant women 

   - insufficent will cause disorder

      - neural tude defects such as spina bifida

physiological response to changes in the environment

- responses may be temporary or permanent, depending on the environmental change

- it is under genetic influence

- subject for evolutionary factors such as natural selection or genetic drift