- CALYX

-  RENAL PELVIS

- URETER

- URINARY BLADDER

- URETHRA TO OUT OF BODY

- CALYX

-  RENAL PELVIS

- URETER

- URINARY BLADDER

- URETHRA TO OUT OF BODY

ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY:

ROUTE OF URINE

- BOTH URETERS ENTER IN THE POSTERIOR/INTERIOR AREA OF THE BLADDER

- HOLLOW MUSCULAR ORGAN IN PELVIC CAVITY

- HOLDS AROUND 700-800 ML OF URINE

- PERITONEAL FOLDS HOLD BLADDER IN PLACE

- THE THREE LAYERS OF THE SMOOTH MUSCLE CALLED DETRUSOR MUSCLE

- ALLOWS BLADDER TO EXPAND AND APPEAR ROUND AND PEAR-SHAPED AS IT FILLS WITH URINE

- WHEN EMPTY LOOKS LIKE A DEFLATED BALLOON

- CONTRACTIONS GENERATE PRESSURE TO EXPEL URINE THROUGH URETHRA AND OUT OF BODY

- SMALL TUBE LEADING FROM FLOOR OF BLADDER TO EXTERIOR OF BODY

- TWO SPHINCTERS ARE FOUND IN THE PERINEUM (SAME AREA IN BOTH MALES AND FEMALE)

- INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL URETHRAL SPHINCTER

 - INTERAL AND EXTERNAL URETHRAL SPHINCTER

INVOLUNTARY SMOOTH AND VOLUNTARY SKELETAL MUSCLE

- PASSES VERTICALLY THROUGH PROSTATE, DEEP PERINEAL MUSCLES, AND UP THROUGH THE PENIS

- SERVES AS A DUCT FOR URINE AS WELL AS SEMEN

- EXTERNAL URETHRAL ORIFICE IS AT THE END OF THE PENIS BUT NO SPHINCTER IS PRESENT

- EMBEDDED IN FRONT WALL OF VAGINA

- EXTERNAL URETHRAL ORIFICE IS BETWEEN THE CLITORIS AND VAGINAL OPENING

- SHORTENED LENGTH MAKES UTI MORE PRONE FROM EXTERNAL BACTERIA

- AS URINE ACCUMULATES IN THE BLADDER, A REFLEX IS STIMULATED TO START THE PROCESS OF MICTURITION

- SMOOTH MUSCLES OF BLADDER AND BOTH URETHRAL SPHINCTERS ARE INNERVATED BY THE PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

- CEREBAL CORTEX CAN TEMPORARILY SUPPRESS THE REFLEX THROUGH THE EXTERNAL URETHRAL SPHINCTER

- 45-75% OF WATER COMPOSES THE TOTAL BODY MASS (DEPENDING ON AGE/GENDER/FITNESS)

- TWO MAJOR COMPARTMENTS

- INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR FLUID

- 2/3 OF BODY FLUID IS LOCATED IN INTRACELLULAR FLUID

- WITHIN THE CELLS

- OUTSIDE OF THE ELL

- 1/3 OF BODY FLUID HERE

- CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO MAJOR SECTIONS

(INTERSTITIAL FLUID AND PLASMA)

- INTERSTITIAL FLUID (BETWEEN CELLS AND TISSUES)

- PLASMA (IN BLOOD)

- FLUIDS CAN BE EXCHANGED BETWEEN CELLS AND SURROUNDING INTERSTITIAL FLUID DUE TO SELECTIVELY PERMABLE NATURE OF CELL MEMBRANES

- FLUID CAN BE EXCHANGED BETWEEN INTERSTITIAL FLUID AND THE BLOOD PLASMA IN CAPILLARIES

- IS CONTINUOUS TO MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS

- FLUID BALANCE DEPENDS ON ELECTROLYTE BALANCE

- ELECTROLYTES ARE COMPOUNDS THAT SEPARATE INTO IONS WHEN DISSOLVED IN WATER AND CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY

- NA⁺, CL^-,K⁺ Controls Osmosis of water between fluid compartments

- H⁺ and HCO₃- maintain acid-base balance required for normal cellular activities

NA⁺, K⁺, CA2+ carry electrical current for action potentials

CA²⁺ and Mg²⁺ are cofactors for enzymes

- Osmosis gradient, and therefore water movement, is regulated by distribution of electrolytes in:

Plasma

Interstitial Fluid

Intracellular Fluid

- Kidneys integral in acchieving and maintaining fluid and electrolyte homeostasis

(excretes excess water through dilute urine and electrolytes through ceonentrate urine)

- Kidneys also integral in blood pressure regulation

(Changes in water levels can change blood volume and consequently blood pressure)

- Homeostasis is maintained by equal gain and loss of about 2500 ml

- Water has three ways is taken by body:

Drinking

Eating foods that contain water

Chemical reactions (metabolic water)

- Excretion by kidneys

- Evaporation from skin surface

- Exhalation from lungs

- Feces elimination

- Water loss is greater then water gain

- Excercise

- Working in hot environment

- Not drinking eough water

- Vomitting

- Diarrhea

- Located in hypothalamus

(Sense fluid level changes and stimulates posterior piuitary to secret antidiuretic hormone ADH)

- ADH stimulates

(water reabsorption in kidney and therefore producred concentrated urine)

(Drinking more fluids)

- ADH also makes the distal convulted tubules and collecting ducts water permeable for reabsorption of water

- Cells in afferent arteriole of nephron sense a drop in blood volume as occurs in dehydration and release the enzyme renin

(Renin through several steps activates angiotensin II which triggers the secretion of aldosterone in the adrenal glands)

- Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption in kidney (1-4% filtered sodium)

(Since water follows sodium through osmosis water reabsorption occurs to restore blood volume and pressure)

- Hormone released by heart when blood volume and blood presure are too high (From excessive fluid intake or excessive salt consumption)

- Acts on kidney directly and indrectly to excrete more water and sodium

- Three methods for maintaining pH:

Buffer systems in the blood and intracelllular compartments

Exhalation of carbon dioxide

Kidney excretion of H⁺ or HCO3^-

- Most abbundant buffer in intracellular fluid and blood plasma

- In the blood hemoglobin and albumin can release or combine with H⁺ to maintain pH

- Bicarbonate can act as weak base

- Carbonic Acid can act as weak acid

- Works with kidneys and lungs to maintain homeostasis

- Equation for this buffer system:

CO²+H₂O <-> H₂CO₃ <-> HCO₃- + H⁺

- Increasing rate and depth of breathing lowers the CO₂ concentration, shifting the equation to the left it lowers H⁺ concentration, this increases pH (alkaline)

- Decreases rate and depth of breathing increases CO₂ concentration, shifting to the right it increases H⁺ concentration thus lowers pH (acid)

- Levels of CO₂ and pH are detected by chemoreceptors in carotid artery, aortic arch, medulla

(Respiratory mechanism responds rapidly to chang blood ph in minutes but only alters CO₂ levels and thus carbonic acid concentration, it can't eliminate the hydrogen ions

- CO₂ and H₂O also combines in the kidneys to produce H₂CO₃ (carbonic acid) which then disassociates into HCO₃- (bicarbonate ion) and H⁺ (hydrogen ion)

- Depending on whether the system is too acid or alkaline, one or the other with bell permanently removed

(When too acid excess H⁺ is secreted into the filtrate, when too alkaline HCO_3- is secreted

- Renal mechanism takes hours or days, but removal of excess H⁺ is permanent

- A SET OF ORGANS THAT BREAKS DOWN FOOD ITEMS INTO NUTRIENTS THAT CAN BE DELIVERED BY BLOODSTREAM TO CELLS IN BODY

- ORGANS ARE LOCATED FROM HEAD TO ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY

- GASTROINTSTINAL (GI) TRACT

- ACCESSORY ORGANS

- ALIMENTARY CANAL OR DIGESTIVE TRACT

- CONSISTS OF 5-7 METER (16-23 FEET) LONG TUBE

- CONTAINS FOOD THROUGHOUT ITS DIGESTION

- DIGESTIVE ORGANS OF GI TRACT MAKE UP THE TUBE

- LIE OUTSIDE THE TUBE

- SUPPLY ADDITIONAL DIGESTIVE FLUIDS TO GI TRACT

- MOUTH

- PHARYNX

- ESOPHAGUS

- STOMACH

- SMALL INTESTINE

- LARGE INTESTINE

- SALIVARY GLANDS

- LIVER

- PANCREAS

- GALLBLADDER

- MECHANICAL DIGESTION

- CHEMICAL DIGESTION

- FOOD IS PHYSICALLY BROKEN INTO SMALLER PARTS

- ALL NUTRIENTS GO THRU CHEWING IN MOUTH, CHURNING IN STOMACH, AND SEGMENTATION IN SMALL INTESTINE

- CHEMICAL BONDS BETWEEN FOOD MOLECULES ARE BROKEN BY ENZYMES

- VARIES FOR EACH NUTRIENT BECAUSE DIGESTIVE ENZYME ARE SPECIFIC FOR SINGLE TYPE OF NUTRIENT, MOST USE HYDROLYSIS REACTIONS

- INGESTION

- SECRETION

- MIXING

- PROPULSION

- DIGESTION

- ABSORPTION

- DEFECATION

- TAKING FOOD INTO MOUTH

- SWALLOWING

- PERISTALSIS

- THIN SEROUS MEMBRANE THAT LINES ABDOMINAL CAVITY (PARIETAL PERITONEUM) AND EXTENDS OUT TO WRAP AROUND ABDOMINAL ORGANS (VISCERAL PERITONEUM)

- GREATER OMENTUM

- MESENTERY AND MESOCOLON

- PERITONEAL FOLD THAT DRAPES OVER INTESTINES

- HANGS FROM STOMACH AND TRANSVERSE COLON

- HAS A LOT OF ADIPOSE TISSUE

- VISCERAL PERITONEUM THAT WRAPS AND BINDS MOST OF SMALL INTESTINE (MESENTERY) AND PARTS OF COLON (MESOCOLON) TO ABDOMINAL WALL

- CARRIES BLOOD VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYMPHATICS TO MUCH OF SMALL AND LARGE INTESTINE

- MUCOSA

- SUBMUCOSA

- MUSCULARIS

- SEROSA

- EPITHELIAL TISSUE HELPS ABSORB FOOD

- CONNECTIVE TISSUE FOR SUPPORT

- MUSCLE USED TO PROPEL FOOD DOWN TRACT

- INNER LINING OF GI TRACT

- SEVERAL LAYERS WITHIN MUCOSA

- INNERMOST LAYER IS EPITHELIUM

- COVERED AND PROTECTED BY LAYER OF MUCUS

- FINAL DIGESTION OCCURS AT EPITHELIAL MEMBRANE

- ABSORPTION OCCURS

- LAMINAL PROPRIA

- MUSCULARIS MUCOSAE

- LYMPHATIC NODULES

- INNERMOST LAYER OF MUCOSA

- SECRETE MUCUS

- THIN DOUBLE LAYER OF SMOOTH MUSCLE

- MOVES THE VILLI

- LAYER OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

- CONTAINS BLOOD AND LYMPHATIC VESSELS THAT SUPPLY MUCOSA LAYER

- CONTAINS NERVE PLEXUSES OF ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ENS) AND AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANA) CONTROLS SECRETIONS AND MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

- GLANDS SECRETE MUCUS THROUGH DUCTS ONTO SURFACE OF MUCOSA LAYER

- THICK LAYER OF MUSCLE

- MOST OF GI TRACT IS SURROUNDED BY 2 LAYERS OF SMOOTH MUSCLE

- VOLUNTARY SKELETARY MUSCLE IN PHARYNX, FIRST PART OF ESOPHAGUS, AND ANUS

- INNER CIRCULAR LAYER

- LONGITUDINAL LAYER

- PRODUCES PERISTALSIS AND SEGMENTATION

- ENS CONTROLS INVOLUNTARY SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

- STOMACH HAS 3RD LAYER CALLED OBLIQUE LAYER

- THIN OUTER LAYER

- WRAPS AROUND STOMACH, MOST OF SMALL INTESTINE, AND PARTS OF LARGE INTESTINE AS EXTENSION OF MESENTERY

- INNER LOOSE AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

- FACING OUTWARD IS LAYER OF EPITHELIUM

- SECRETES WATERY FLUID, LUBRICATES OUTSIDE OF GI ALLOWING IT TO SLIDE AGAINST OTHER ORGANS

- OFTEN CALLED "GUT BRAIN"

- COORDINATES MOVEMENTS AND SECRETIONS

- NEURONS WITHIN SUBMUCOSA CONTROL SECRETIONS OF ORGANS OF GI TRACT

- NEURONS IN MUSCULARIS CONTROL FREQUENCY AND STRENGTH OF CONTRACTIONS

- ENS IS REGULATED BY AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM BUT FUNCTIONS INDEPENDENTLY

- TEETH

- TONGUE

- TISSUE SURROUNDING MOUTH ARE SALIVARY GLANDS (ACCESSORY ORGANS)

- SWALLOWING BEGINS IN MOUTH

- INGESTION STARTS DIGESTIVE PROCESS

- MASTICATION

- TEETH PARTS

- 3 SALIVARY GLANDS

- RESPONSIBLE FOR CHEWING

- SHAPED DIFFERENTLY TO BREAK APART FOOD

- INCISORS (CUTTING)

- CUSPIDS (CANINES, TEARING)

- MOLARS (GRINDING)

- MANIPULATES FOOD AND CONTAINS TASTE RECEPTORS

- MOVES FOOD AGAINST TEETH

- HELPS WITH SWALLOWING

- CREATES A BOLUS FROM FOOD

- CHEWING

- DONE BY JAW MUSCLES AND TEETH

- MECHANICAL BREAKDOWN OF FOOD INTO SMALLER PIECES TO INCREASE FOOD SURFACE AREA FOR SUBSEQUENT CHEMICAL DIGESTION

- GUMS (GINGIVA)

- TEETH (INCISORS, CUSPIDS, MOLARS)

- CROWN (PART ABOVE GUM)

- NECK (WHERE TEETH MEETS GUM)

- ROOT (PART BELOW GUM)

- ENAMEL

- DENTIN

- PULP CAVITY

- ROOT CANAL

- HARD OUTER LAYER

- PROTECTS TEETH FROM WEAR

- MAJORITY OF TOOTH

- HARD BUT LESS THAN ENAMEL

- CONNECTS TO BONE WITH PERIODONTAL LIGAMENT

- SECRETE SALIVA

- PAROTID

- SUBMANDIBULAR

- SUBLINGUAL

- MUCUS

- LYSOZOME

- SALIVARY AMYLASE

- ACT AS PASSAGEWAS TO STOMACH

- SWALLOWING CONTINUES IN PHARYNX THEN ESOPHAGUS TAKES OVER PROPELLING BOLUS TO STOMACH WITH PERISTALSIS

- PHARYNX AND UPPER PART OF ESOPHAGUS ARE SKELETAL MUSCLE

- LOWER 2/3 OF ESOPHAGUS IS SMOOTH MUSCLE

- IN ESOPHAGUS THEIR IS (UPPER ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER AND LOWER ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER)

- WHEN LOWER ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER DOESN'T CLOSE COMPLETELY

- ACIDIC CONTENTS OF STOMACH CAN BACK UP INTO LOWER ESOPHAGUS

- RESULTS IN IRRITATION OF MUCOSAL LINING OF ESOPHAGUS

- HEARTBURN FEELING

- CHRONIC CONDITION CAN LEAD TO PERMANENT DAMAGE TO ESOPHAGEAL LINING

- SWALLOWING

- HAS 3 STAGES (VOLUNTARY, PHARYNGEAL, ESOPHAGEAL)

- VOLUNTARY STAGE

- PHARYNGEAL STAGE

- ESOPHAGEAL STAGE

- INVOLUNTARY

- PERISTALSIS (ALTERNATING CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLE LAYERS TO MOVE FOOD) OF BOLUS TOWARDS ESOPHAGUS

- INVOLUNTARY

- PERISTALSIS OF BOLUS INTO STOMACH

- MUSCULAR CHAMBER

- 3 LAYERS OF SMOOTH MUSCLE (OBLIQUE, CIRCULAR, LONGITUDINAL)

- SECRETES GASTRIC JUICES

- LITTLE ABSORPTION OCCURS

- STOMACH ANATOMY

- CELLS AND SECRETIONS OF GASTRIC PITS

- WHY DOESN'T HCL EAT HOLE IN STOMACH?

- GASTRIC EMPTYING

- OBLIQUE LAYER (INNER)

- CIRCULAR LAYER (MIDDLE)

- LONGITUDINAL LAYER (OUTER)

- PERISTALSIS AND CHURNING OF STOMACH MIXES DIGESTIVE ENZYMES WITH BOLUS OF FOOD (TURNS IT INTO CHYME)

- EATING TAKES PLACE AT FASTER RATE THAN DIGESTION

- STOMACH SERVES AS STORAGE SITE FOR INGESTED FOOD

- RUGAE

- REGIONS OF STOMACH (FUNDUS, BODY, PYLORUS REGION)

- LUMEN OF STOMACH IS LINED WITH THICK MUCOSA EMBEDDED WITH GASTRIC PITS

- GASTRIC JUICE SECRETION IS STIMULATED BY FOOD PRESENCE

- FOLDS OF MUCOSA THAT CAN EXPAND TO ACCOMODATE VOLUME OF FOOD

- FUNDUS

- BODY

- PYLORUS REGION

- TOP

- NEAR WHERE ESOPHAGUS ENTERS

- SITE OF MOST FOOD DIGESTION IN STOMACH

- ENDS AT PYLORIC SPHINCTER

- MUCOUS CELLS

- PARIETAL CELLS

- CHIEF CELLS

- G CELLS

- SECRETE MUCUS TO PROTECT THE STOMACH MUCOSA FROM HCL

- SECRETE HCL AND INTRINSIC FACTOR

- HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCL)

- INTRINSIC FACTOR

- DENATURES (INACTIVATES) PROTEINS ALLOWING ACCESS BY ENZYMES SO THEY CAN CHEMICALLY DIGEST THEM

- KILLS BACTERIA

- ACTIVATES PEPSIN

- SECRETES GASTRIN

- SECRETION OF GASTRIC JUICES

- GI TRACT MOTILITY

- PYLORIC SPHINCTER OPENING

- HCL SECRETION OCCCURS ONLY WHEN FOOD IS PRESENT IN THE STOMACH

- CHYME DILUTES ACID

- PRESENCE OF THICK LAYER OF MUCUS COVERING MUCOSA

- STOMACH CONTENTS TRANSFERRED TO SMALL INTESTINE

- SMALL BURSTS OF CHYME ARE PROPELLED THROUGH PERISTALSIS INTO SMALL INTESTINE THROUGH PARTIALLY OPEN PYLORIC SPHINCTER UNTIL STOMACH IS EMPTY (1-2 HOURS AFTER A MEAL)

- FAT-RICH CHYME REMAINS IN STOMACH THE LONGEST, FOLLOWED PROTEIN, THEN CARBOHYDRATES

- 3 SECTIONS

- PRINCIPLE SITE OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

- SECRETES HORMONES THAT INFLUENCE OTHER DIGESTIVE AND ACCESSORY ORGANS

- SMALL INTESTINE ANATOMY (DUODENUM, JEJUNUM, ILEUM)

- VILLI

- MICROVILLI

- 3 PARTS, ABOUT 5 M LONG

- DUODENUM

- JEJUNUM

- ILEUM

- HAS SAME LAYERS OF GI TRACT

- INNER SURFACE IS HIGHLY FOLDED (MACROSCOPIC FOLDS AND MICROSCOPIC FOLDS)

- FIRST PART OF SMALL INTESTINE WHERE DIGESTION STARTS

- 25 CM LONG

- MIDDLE PORTION

- 2-2.5 M LONG

- LAST PORTION

- 2-2.5 LONG

- CIRCULAR FOLDS

- VISIBLE TO EYE

- FORMED FROM BOTH MUCOSA AND SUBMUCOSA OF SMALL INTESTINE

- VILLI (PROJECTIONS OF MUCOSA LAYER)

- MICROVILLI (PROJECTIONS OF EPITHELIAL CELL ITSELF)

- PROJECTIONS OF MUCOSAL LAYER

- CONTAINS LAYER OF SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL CELLS (ABSORPTIVE CELLS) WITH MUCOUS CELLS

- PLUS LAMINA PROPRIA, CAPILLARIES, AND LYMPHATIC VESSEL (LACTEAL)

- INCREASE SURFACE AREA BY 300-400% FOR ABSORPTION, WHILE MAINTAINING SMALL OUTER SURFACE FOR ORGAN

- IN BETWEEN VILLI ARE INTESTINAL GLANDS, THAT SECRETE ENZYMES AND HORMONES

- PROJECTIONS OF SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL CELLS (ABSORPTIVE CELLS) ITSELF

- WHERE FINAL DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OCCURS

- ACIDIC CHYME STIMULATES PANCREAS TO SECRETE PANCREATIC BICARBONATE INTO DUODENUM

- PANCREATIC JUICE NEUTRALIZES ACIDIC CHYME

- AMINO ACIDS AND FATTY ACIDS IN CHYME STIMULATE CCK CELLS TO SECRETE CHOLECYSTOKININ (CCK)

- CCK

- INCREASES PANCREATIC ENZYME SECRETION

- CAUSES BILE RELEASE FROM GALLBLADDER

- INHIBITS GASTRIC EMPTYING

- SEGMENTATION

- PERISTALSIS

- MIXES SECRETIONS EMPTYING INTO DUODENUM WITH CHYME

- STOPS WHEN CHYME REACHES ILEUM

- MOVES CHYME ALONG LENGTH OF SMALL INTESTINE AS DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OCCURS

- CHYME REMAINS IN SMALL INTESTINE FOR TOTAL OF 3-5 HOURS

- NUTRIENTS

- ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

- MINERALS

- VITAMINS

- CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES IN FOOD CELLS THAT CELLS NEED FOR GROWTH, MAINTENANCE, REPAIR

- 6 CLASSES

- CARBOHYDRATES

- LIPIDS

- PROTEINS

- WATER

- MINERALS

- VITAMINS

- CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, PROTEINS, AND VITAMINS ARE ORGANIC MOLECULES (CONTAIN CARBON)

- WATER AND MINERALS ARE INORGANIC MOLECULES

- SUBSTANCES THAT BODY CANNOT MAKE ON ITS OWN IN SUFFICIENT QUANTIITIES TO MEET ITS NEEDS

- MUST COME FROM INGESTED FOOD

- SOME AMINO ACIDS AND FATTY ACIDS, AND ALL VITAMINS

- ALL MINERALS ARE TECHNICALLY ESSENTIAL, BUT NOT CALLED ESSENTIAL

- 4% OF BODY WEIGHT ARE MINERALS, MOST FOUND IN BONES AND TEETH

- IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS

- 15 MAJOR BIOLOGICALLY USEFUL MINERALS

- BONE STRUCTURE (CONTAINS LARE REPOSITORY OF CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS)

- REGULATION OF ENZYMATIC FUNCTIONS

- MAINTENANCE OF BODY FLUID pH

- OSMOSIS

- GENERATION OF ACTION POTENTIALS IN NERVES AND MUSCLES

- CALCIUM

- PHOSPHORUS

- POTASSIUM

- SULFUR

- SODIUM

- CHLORIDE

- MAGNESIUM

- IRON

- IODINE

- ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

- 13 TOTAL

- REQUIRED IN SCANT AMOUNTS TO MAINTAIN NORMAL GROWTH AND METABOLISM

- FIRST ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS DISCOVERED

- MOST SERVE AS COENZYMES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

- FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

- WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

- ANTIOXIDANT VITAMINS

- A

- D

- E

- K

- ABSORBED FROM DIGESTIVE TRACT AND TRANSPORTED IN CHYLOMICRONS

- EXCESS STORED IN BODY CELLS

- B VITAMINS

- C

- DISSOLVED IN BODY FLUIDS

- EXCESS EXCRETED INTO URINE

- INACTIVE DAMAGING FREE RADICALS OF OXYGEN

- VITAMINS C

- VITAMIN E

- BETA-CAROTENE (PRECURSOR TO VITAMIN A, PRO-VITAMIN)

- DEFINED AS ALL CHEMICAL REACTIONS THAT TAKE PLACE IN THE BODY

- MOST REACTIONS IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM ARE CATALYZED (SPED UP) BY ENZYMES OR COMBINATIONS OF ENZYMES

- 2 MAJOR TYPES OF METABOLIC REACTIONS (SYNTHESIS REACTIONS AND DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS)

- ENERGY PRODUCTION- ATP

- CARBOHYDRATE CATABOLISM

- STEPS OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

- HOW IS GLUCOSE MADE WHEN THERE IS NOT ENOGUH IN DIET

- LIPID CATABOLISM: LIPOLYSIS

- LIPID ANABOLISM: LIPOGENESIS

- LIPOPROTEINS

- PROTEIN CATABOLISM

- AMINO ACID CATABOLISM

- SYNTHESIS REACTIONS (ANABOLIC)

- DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS (CATABOLIC)

- SIMPLE ORGANIN MOLECULES ARE COMBINED TO MAKE MORE COMPLEX MOLECULES

- USUALLY REQUIRES INPUT OF ENERGY = ANABOLIC

- COMPLEX ORGANIC MOLECULES ARE BROKEN DOWN INTO SIMPLER MOLECULES

- THESE REACTIONS USUALLY RELEASE ENERGY = CATABOLIC

- REACTIONS NEED ENERGY

- PRIMARY SOURCE IS FROM SPLITTING ATP INTO ADP (AND INORGANIC PHOSPHATE)

- TO GENERATE ATP NUTRIENTS ARE BROKEN DOWN (CATABOLIZED)

- CARBOHYDRATES AND FATS ARE ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION

- GLUCOSE IS EASIEST TO USE FOR GENERATION OF ATP

- NEURONS AND RED BLOOD CELLS ONLY USE GLUCOSE TO GENERATE ATP

- OTHER BODY CELLS CAN BREAK DOWN LIPIDS AND AMINO ACIDS TO GENERATE ATP WHEN GLUCOSE IS UNAVAILABLE

- MUSCLES ACTUALLY PREFER TO USE FATTY ACIDS FOR ENERGY DURING LOW ACTIVITY

- CARBOHYDRATES, LIKE STARCHES AND DISACCHARIDES, ARE CATABOLIZED INTO MONOSACCHARIDES (NON-GLUCOSE MONOSACCHARIDES ARE CONVERTED INTO GLUCOSE)

- EXCESS GLUCOSE IS STORED AS GLYCOGEN IN LIVER AND MUSCLES

- WHEN CELLS REQUIRE ATP, GLUCOSE IS CATABOLIZED (BROKEN DOWN) AND OXIDIZED

- REMOVED ENERGY IS TRANSFERRED TO MAKE ATP FROM ADP

- REMOVAL OF ELECTRONS FROM A MOLECULE

- REMOVED ELECTRONS CARRY ENERGY FROM BREAKDOWN OF MOLECULE INTO ANABOLIC REACTION MAKING ATP FROM ADP

- GLYCOLYSIS

- WITH OXYGEN PRESENT IN MITOCHONDRIA

- EACH GLUCOSE MOLECULE GOES THROUGH ENTIRE PROCESS GENERATES 36 (OR 38) ATP MOLECULES (PLUS CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER)

1 GLUCOSE + 6 OXYGEN --> 6 CARBON DIOXIDE + 6 WATER + 36 (OR 38) ATP

- ANAEROBIC (DOESN'T NEED OXYGEN)

- OCCURS IN CYTOSOL

- GLUCOSE MOLECULE IS SPLIT INTO 2 PYRUVATE MOLECULES (PYRUVATE GO ONTO NEXT STEP)

- 2 ATP GENERATED

- ACETYL COENZYME A (ACETYL CoA) IS PRODUCED FROM PYRUVATE MADE IN GLYCOLYSIS

- ACETYL CoA ENTERS KREBS CYCLE

- CARRIERS TRANSFER THEIR ELECTRONS TO ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC), WHERE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION PRODUCES A LOT OF ATP FROM ADP

- REST OCCURING IN MITOCHONDRIA AND IS AEROBIC (NEEDS OXYGEN)

32 (OR 34) ATP GENERATED

- PYRUVATE IS FURTHER BROKEN DOWN TO CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER

- ELECTRONS AND THEIR ENERGY ARE REMOVED AND TRANSFERRED TO ELECTRON CARRIER MOLECULES

- 2 ATP GENERATED

- GLYCOGENOLYSIS

- GLUCOGENESIS

- ORDER OF BREAKDOWN PREFERENCE

- GLYCOGEN FIRST BROKEN DOWN, THEN FATS, THEN PROTEINS IN BODY

- SYNTHESIS OF GLUCOSE FROM AMINO ACIDS, GLYCEROL, PYRUVATE, AND LACTIC ACID

- REVERSE OF GLYCOLYSIS

- OCCURS IN MUSCLE, LIVER, AND FAT CELLS

- TRIGLYCERIDES ARE SPLIT INTO GLYCEROL AND 3 FATTY ACIDS

- GLUCOSE THROUGH GLUCONEOGENESIS

- ATP THROUGH CELLULAR RESPIRATION

- ACETYL CoA FOR CELLULAR RESPIRATION

- KETONES TO USE AS ENERGY SOURCE IN OTHER CELLS

- KETONES CAN BE CHANGED BACK BY LIVER TO ACETYL CoA AND METABOLIZED THROUGH CELLULAR RESPIRATION

- IF THERE IS NO NEED FOR LIPIDS TO BE USED, THEY ARE STORED AS TRIGLYCERIDES

- TRIGLYCERIDES CAN BE CREATED, ALSO FROM EXCESS GLUCOSE USING SAME BIOCHEMICAL PATHWAYS

- INSULIN STIMULATES LIPOGENESIS

- LIPIDS ARE HYDROPHOBIC; THEY NEED TO BE TRANSPORTED IN WATER-SOLUBLE PACKAGES = LIPOPROTEINS

- 4 IMPORTANT TYPES OF LIPOPROTEINS

- CHYLOMICRONS

- VERY-LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (VLDLS)

- LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (LDLS)

- HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (HDLS)

- MADE IN SMALL INTESTINE

- TRANSPORT DIETARY LIPIDS TO ADIPOSE CELLS AND LIVER FOR STORAGE

- TRANSPORT TRIGLYCERIDES FROM LIVER CELLS TO ADIPOSE CELLS FOR STORAGE

- BECOME LDLS AFTER DEPOSITING SOME TRIGLYCERIDES

- CARRY 75% OF CHOLESTEROL IN BLOOD AND DELIVER TO BODY CELLS

- ASSOCIATED WITH FATTY PLAQUE FORMATION IN BLOOD VESSELS (BAD CHOLESTEROL)

- INGESTED PROTEINS AND BODY PROTEINS ARE BROKEN DOWN TO AMINO ACIDS AND ABSORBED IN SMALL INTESTINE

- AMINO ACIDS CANNT BE STORED

- MAKE NEW PROTEINS

- CONVERTED TO GLUCOSE

- CONVERTED TO TRIGLYCERIDES

- CONVERTED TO KETONES

- CATABOLIZED TO GENERATE ATP

- AMINO ACID UPTAKE IS STIMULATED BY INSULIN

- AMINO ACID GROUP IS REMOVED THROUGH DEAMINATION, PRODUCING AMMONIA

- REMAINING ORGANIC COMPONENT FROM CATABOLISM IS USED IN CELLULAR RESPIRATION, SPECIFICALLY KREBS CYCLE (METABOLIZED TO MAKE ATP)

WHAT DOES THE LARGE INTESTINE DO?

- ABSORBS MAINLY WATER

(PLUS A FEW IONS AND VITAMINS)

- BACTERIA AND OTHER MICROORGANISMS SYMBIOTICALLY FILL THE LARGE INTESTINE

- BREAKS DOWN SOME OF THE REMAINING CARBOHYDRATES (USUALLY INDIGESTIBLE ONES) AND PRODUCE SOME ESSENTIAL VITAMINS

- 6.5CM IN DIAMETER IN 1.5M LONG AND EXTENDS FROM ILEUM TO ANUS

- HAS THE TYPICAL FOUR LAYERS AND THE MUCOSA LAYER HAS INTESTINAL GLANDS BUT THERE ARE NO CIRCULAR FOLDS OR VILLI

- CECUM (ILEOCECAL SPHINCTER VALVE)

- COLON

- RECTUM

- ANAL CANAL

- ASCENDING COLON (RETROPIERITONEAL BEHIND PERITONEUM)

- TRANSVERSE COLON (ATTACHED TO POSTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL BY THE MESOCOLON)

- DESCENDING COLON (RETROPERITONEAL)

- SIGMOID COLON (ATTACHED TO POSTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL BT THE MESOCOLON)

- FECES PASSES THROUGH DURING DEFACATION

- (INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTERS)

- INVOLUNTARY SMOOTH MUSCLE

- VOLUNTARY SKELETAL MUSCLE

(REGULATES MOVEMENT OF MATERIAL OUT OF LARGE INTESTINE THROUGH ANUS)

- BANDS OF MUSCLE FIBERS THAT REPLACE THE LONGITUDINAL MUSCLE OF THE REST OF THE GI TRACT

(PUCKERS UP LARGE INTESTINE TO FORM POUCH-LIKE SACS CALLED HAUSTRA)

- (INCREASES SURFACE AREA FOR ABSORPTION OF WATER, SODIUM AND POTASSIUM IONS, AND VITAMINS B AND K

- HAUSTRAL CHURNING, PERISTALSIS, AND MASS PERISTALSIS

- MOST IMPORTANT ROLE IS ABSORPTION OF WATER

- ABSORPTION OF WATER FROM CHYME FORMS FECES, LEADING TO DEFECATION

- COLON FLORA FERMENT UNDIGESTED CARBOHYDRATES PRODUCE GASES (HYDROGEN, CARBON DIOXIDE, METHANE) THAT GET RELEASED AS FLATUS

- NUTRIENTS THAT ARE NOT ABSORBED IN SMALL INTESTINE PASS OUT IN FECES

- ONCE IN LARGE INTESTINE, CHYME TAKES 3-10 HOURS TO PASS

- AS WATER GETS ABSORBED, CHYME CHANGES FROM LIQUID TO SEMI-SOLID OR SOLID MASS CALLED FECES

HOW IS ABSORPTION OF WATER THE MOST IMPORTANT ROLE OF THE LARGE INTESTINE?

- SOME IONS, AND SOME ESSENTIAL VITAMINS (B & K) ARE ALSO ABSORBED

- B & K VITAMINS ARE PRODUCED BY COLON BACTERIA

- COLON FLORA FERMENT UNDIGESTED CARBOHYDRATES THAT PRODUCE GASES

- HYDROGEN

- CARBON DIOXIDE

- METHANE

- WATER

- INORGANIC SALTS

- EPITHELIAL CELLS THAT HAVE SLOUGHED OFF MUCOSA OF GI TRACT

- BACTERIA

- PRODUCTS OF BACTERIAL DECOMPOSITION

- INDIGESTIBLE PARTS OF FOOD (FIBER, ETC)

- DRIVES FECES FROM COLON TO RECTUM

(BEGINS WITH WAVES OF MASS PERISTALSIS THAT OCCUR PERIODICALLY)

- INITIATES THE DEFACATION REFLEX

(STRETCH RECEPTORS IN WALLS OF RECTUM STIMULATE PARASYMPATHETIC NERVE ACTIVITY LEADING TO RELAXATION OF ANAL SPHINCTERS)

- VOLUNTARY CONTRACTION OF EXTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER MUSCLES CAN DELAY DEFACATION

- FREQUENT DEFACATION OF LQUID OR LOOSE FECES

(EXCESS WATER AND NUTRIENTS REMAIN IN WATER)

- ABSORPTION OF FLUID AND NUTRIENTS BY INTESTINES DECREASES

- IF CHYME MOVES TOO QUICKLY (INCREASED CONTRACTION IN INTESTINES) OFTEN DUE TO SOMETHING IRITATING THE GI TRACT (EX. VIRUS OR FOOD POISONING)

- MISSING ENZYMES THAT PROCESS FOOD LEADING TO AN INCRESAE IN OSMOLARITY OF THE CHYME AND RETENTION OF WATER IN THE COLON

- INFREQUENT OR DIFFICULT DEFECATION DUE TO DECREASED MOTILITY OF THE INTESTINES

- MOVEMENT OF CHYME THROUGH INTESTINES IS SLOWED AND ABSORPTION OF FLUID INCREASES

- OFTEN CAUSED BY LOW FIBER IN DIETS

- CONSISTS OF TWO MAJOR LOBES (RIGHT AND LEFT) AND PLAYS A MAJOR ROLE IN MANY CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN THE BODY

- REFERRED TO AS THE CHEMICAL FACTORY

- PRODUCING BILE (EMULSIFIES LIPIDS)

- FROM THE HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN IT RECEIVES AND THEN PROCESSES THE BULK OF THE DIGESTED NUTRIENTS DIRECTLY FROM THE SMALL INTESTINE

- LIVER CELLS

- MANUFACTURES BILE

- DIGESTED AND ABSORBED SOLUBLE NUTRIENTS ARE BROUGHT TO THE LIVER

- BLOOD IS DISTRIBUTED TO HEPATOCYTES THROUGH THE HEPATIC SINUSOIDS

- HEPATOCYTES EXTRACT AND PROCESS NUTRIENTS

- AFTER HEPATOCYTES COMPLETE THEIR WORK, BLOOD DRAINS FROM HEPATIC SINUSOIDS TO CENTRAL VEINS TO HEPATIC VEIN TO THE INFERIOR VENA CAVA

- HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN TRANSPORTS FROM THE SMALL INTESTINE WATER SOLUBLE NUTRIENTS TO LIVER

- THE LIPIDS ARE TRANSPORTED FROM THE SMALL INTESTINE THROUGH THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM EVENTUALLY END IN THE BLOOD AND SO MANY ALSO END UP BEING PROCESSED BY THE LIVER

COMMON HEPATIC DUCT

RIGHT HEPATIC DUCT

LEFT HEPATIC DUCT

LIVER

CYSTIC DUCT

GALLBLADDER

- THE FAT ENTERS AND TRIGGERS THE CONTRACTION OF THE GALLBLADDER AND THE RELEASE OF THE BILE INTO THE COMMON BILE DUCT

- THE COMMON BILE DUCT COMBINES WITH THE PACREATIC DUCT WHICH CARRIES THE PACREATIC JUICES

- THEN THE BILE AND PANCREATIC JUICES ARE THEN SECRETED INTO THE DUODENUM TO MIX WITH THE CHYME FROM THE STOMACH

- ENDOCRINE CELLS (PRODUCES INSULIN AND GUCAGON)

- ACINAR CELLS

- LOCATED INFERIOR AND POSTERIOR TO THE STOMACH, HEAD NEXT TO THE DUODENUM

(RETROPERITONEAL)

- SECRETED BY PANCREATIC ACINAR CELLS

- CLEAR AND COLORLESS

- FLOWS INTO DUODENUM THROUGH PANCREATIC DUCT

- COMPOSED OF WATER, SODIUM, BICARBONATE (TO NUETRALIZE STOMACH ACID) AND DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

- AMYLASE

- TRYSPIN, CHYMOTRYPSIN, CARBOXYPEPTIDASE (PROTEOLYTIC)

RIBONUCLEASE, DEOXYRIBONUCLEASE

- ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS FROM SMALL INTESTINAL LUMEN IS THROUGH THE MOCROVILLI OF THE SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM OF THE INTESTINAL WALL

- OCCURS THROUGH DIFFUSION, FACILATED DIFFUSION, AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT

- REMOVES SUGARS, AMINO ACIDS, LIPIDS FROM LUMEN TO CREATE A GRADIENT THAT ALLOWS WATER TO BE ABSORBED BY OSMOSIS

- VITAMINS ABSORBED BY SIMPLE DIFFUSION (WITH WATER OR WITH LIPIDS)

WHERE DOES THE ABSORBED NUTRIENT

AMINO ACIDS, SUGARS, SHORT-CHAIN FATTY ACIDS, AND OTHER WATER SOLUBLE NUTRIENTS GO AFTER THE SMALL INTESTINE?

- FROM THE EPITHELIAL CELLS, THEY DIFFUSE INTO THE INTERSTITIAL FLUID OF THE VILLI AND THEN INTO THE CAPILLARIES TO BE CARRIED Y THE HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN CIRCULATION TO THE LIVER

- FURTHER PROCESSING OF THE NUTRIENTS OCCURS IN THE LIVER, AND NUTRIENTS ARE SENT INTO GENERAL CIRCULATION

- IN THE EPITHELIAL CELLS THEY ARE PACKAGED INTO CHYLOMICRONS (PROTEIN-COATED SPHERES THAT ARE A TYPE OF LIPOPROTEIN)

- THESE EXIT THE EPITHELIAL CELLS THROUGH EXOCYTOSIS INTO THE INTERSTITIAL FLUID OF THE VILLI

- THE CHYLOMICRONS ARE TOO LARGE TO ENTER THE CAPILLARIES SO ARE TAKEN UP BY THE LACTEALS (LYPMPH CAPILLARIES) IN THE VILLI

- WHEN CHYLOMICRON TRAVELS THROUGH THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM TO THE SUBCLAVIAN VEIN TO ENTER THE BLOOD AND THE GENERAL CIRCULATION, WHERE THEY PASS ONTO ADIPOSE TISSUE AND LIVER

- THEY ARE BROKEN UP AND LIPIDS ARE STORED OR REPACKAGED TO BE REDISTRIBUTED

- BY THE TIME THE CHYME REACHES LARGE INTESTINE MOST BILE SALTS HAVE BEEN REABSORBED AND RETURNED TO LIVER FOR REUSE

- INSUFFICIENT BILE SALTS CAN RESULT IN UP TO 40% LOSS OF DIETARY LIPIDS, INCLUDING FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS, IN FECES

WHAT IS THE ENS CONTROL OF CONTRACTION?

(ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM)

- "GUT BRAIN (NUERONS LOCATED IN THE GI TRACT)

- INFLUENCED BY THE ANS

- CEPHALIC PHASE

- GASTRIC PHASE

- INTESTINAL PHASE

- RESPONDS TO SENSATION OF FOOD

(SMELL, TASTE, SIGHT)

- PREPARES MOUTH AND STOMACH TO RECEIVE FOOD

- PHASE LASTS AS LONG AS EATING THE MEAL

- CONTINUES GATRIC SECRETIONS AND MOTILITY

- MIXING FOOD AND REGULATING GATRIC EMPTYING

- PROMOTES CONTINUED DIGESTION THROUGH SMALL INTESTINE

- ALSO INHIBITS GASTRIC EMPTYING TO PREVENT DUODENUM FROM BEING OVERLOADED WITH CHYME

- ORGANS OF EXCRETION

- COMPOSED OF A PAIR OF KIDNEYS AND URINARY TRACT

- MAINTAIN BLOOD HOMEOSTASIS

- KIDNEYS FILTER BLOOD TO CREATE URINE

- URINARY TRACT TRANSPORTS AND STORES THE RESULTANT URINE

- URETERS

- BLADDER

- URETHRA

- FILTRATION

- REABSORPTION

- SECRETION

- ALL HELP TO MAINTAIN BODY HOMEOSTASIS AND MAINTAIN FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE

- REABSORPTION OF ESSENTIAL SUBSTANCES

- MEANS RETURN OF THESE ESSENTIAL SUBSTANCES TO THE BLOOD

- MOST OF FILTRATE IS RETURNED TO THE BLOOD

- PAIR OF REDDISH ORGANS (SHAPED LIKE KIDNEY BEANS, SIZE OF BAR OF SOAP IN ADULTS)

- FOUND ON EACH SIDE OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN BETWEEN PERITONEUM AND BACK WALL OF ABDOMINAL CAVITY (12 THORACIC AND 1-3RD LUMBAR VERTEBRAE)

- RIGHT KIDNEY IS SLIGHTLY LOWER BECAUSE OF LIVER TAKING UP SPACE

- ON MEDIAL SPACE IS HILUM

- ATTACHED TO KIDNEYS ARE ADRENAL GLANDS (ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)

- HAS 3 EXTERNAL LAYERS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

- RENAL ARTERY

- RENAL VEIN

- NERVES

- LYMPHATICS

- URETER

- RENAL FASCIA

- ADIPOSE CAPSULE

- RENAL CAPSULE

- THIN LAYER OF DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

- ANCHORS EACH KIDNEY TO ABDOMINAL WALL

- THICKEST LAYER

- SHIELDS THEM FROM PHYSICAL TRAUMA

- THICKEST LAYER

- SHIELDS THEM FROM PHYSICAL TRAUMA

- REGULATION OF BLOOD

- PRODUCTION OF 2 HORMONES

- REGULATION OF BLOOD VOLUME

- REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE

- REGULATION OF BLOOD COMPOSITION AND BLOOD pH

- EXCRETION OF WASTES

- RETURN WATER TO BLOOD

- ELIMINATE WATER THROUGH URINE

- ENZYME SECRETED BY AND STORED IN KIDNEYS

- PROMOTES PRODUCTION OF THE PROTEIN ANGIOTENSIN

- REGULATE BLOOD ION LEVELS

- REGULATE BLOOD pH BY REGULATING HYDROGEN ION (H+) AND BICARBONATE ION (HCO3-) CONCENTRATIONS IN THE BLOOD

- REMOVES METABOLIC WASTES SUCH AS AMMONIA, UREA, BILIRUBIN, CREATINE, URIC ACID

- REMOVES FOREIGN SUBSTANCES SUCH AS DRUGS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS

- CALCITROL

- ERYTHROPOIETIN

- ACTIVE FORM OF VITAMIN D

- REGULATES CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS

- HAS 3 DISTINCT REGIONS

- RENAL CORTEX

- RENAL MEDULLA

- RENAL PELVIS

- RENAL BLOOD FLOW

- LIGHT COLORED OUTER LAYER

- RECEIVES MAJORITY OF BLOOD SUPPLY

- CONTAINS MAJORITY OF NEPHRON WHERE FILTRATION AND REABSORPTION OCCURS

- DARK INNER LAYER

- CREATES OSMOTIC GRADIENT THAT ALLOWS CONCENTRATION OF FILTRATE TO OCCUR

- COMPOSED OF 2 REGIONS (RENAL PYRAMIDS AND RENAL COLUMNS)

- RENAL PYRAMIDS

- RENAL COLUMNS

- BETWEEN 7-9 PYRAMIDS

- CONTAINS MANY TUBULES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO CONCENTRATION OF FILTRATE

- LIE BETWEEN RENAL PYRAMIDS

- CONTAIN BLOOD VESSELS ON THEIR WAY TO CORTEX

- COMPOSED OF 2 PARTS

- MINOR CALYX

- MAJOR CALYX

- CUP-LIKE STRUCTURE IN RIM OF RENAL PELVIS

- URINE DRAINS FROM RENAL PYRAMIDS THROUGH DUCTS INTO MINOR CALYX

- CUP-LIKE STRUCTURE IN RIM OF RENAL PELVIS

- RECEIVES URINE FROM MINOR CALYX AND CONNECTS TO URETER

- 20-25% OF RESTING CARDIAC OUTPUT FLOWS THROUGH KIDNEYS VIA RENAL ARTERIES AND VEINS

- RENAL ARTERY DIVIDES INTO SMALLER VESSELS THAT EVENTUALLY BECOME AFFERENT ARTERIOLES

- AFFERENT ARTERIOLES ENTER RENAL CORPUSCLE AND DIVIDE UP TO BECOME GLOMERULUS

- CAPILLARIES OF GLOMERULI THEN UNITE TO FORM EFFERENT ARTERIOLE

- EFFERENT ARTERIOLE THEN DIVIDES INTO CAPILLARY NETWORK CALLED PERITUBULAR CAPILLARIES

- EVENTUALLY THEY FORM LARGER AND LARGER VEINS THAT BECOME RENAL VEIN

- SURROUND RENAL TUBULES IN CORTEX AND MEDULLA

- COLLECT THE REABSORBED WATER AND SOLUTES FROM INTERSTITIAL FLUID

- NEPHRON

- COLLECTING SYSTEM

- 2 TYPES OF NEPHRONS

- RENAL CORPUSCLE

- RENAL TUBULE

- PRINCIPLE FUNCTION UNIT OF KIDNEY

- HAS RENAL CORPUSCLE AND RENAL TUBULE

- WITHIN CORTEX

- CONTAINS GLOMERULUS

- BLOOD PLASMA FILTERED HERE

- 2 PARTS (GLOMERULUS AND GLOMERULAR (BOWMANS) CAPSULE)

- FILTRATE EXITS GLOMERULUS INTO CAPSULE THEN GOES TO RENAL TUBULE

- MADE UP OF 3 TUBES (PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE, NEPHRON LOOP, AND DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE)

- FILTRATE THEN TRAVELS THROUGH RENAL TUBULE SEGMENTS IN FOLLOWING ORDER; PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBLE, NEPHRON LOOP, THEN DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE

- URINE THEN GOES FROM THE RENAL TUBULE STRUCTURES TO COLLECTING DUCT AND THEN PAPILLARY DUCT TO EMPTY INTO MINOR CALYX

- DOUBLE-WALLED CUP OF EPITHELIAL CELLS SURROUNDING GLOMERULAR CAPILLARIES

- INNER WALL CONSISTS OF PODOCYTES

- WITHIN CORTEX

- MOST OF FILTRATE IS REABSORBED

- EXTENDS INTO AND BACK OUT OF MEDULLA

- IMPORTANT FOR CONCENTRATING FILTRATE

- HAS 2 LIMBS

- THIN DESCENDING LIMB

- THICK ASCENDING LIMB

- WITHIN CORTEX

- UNDER HORMONAL CONTROL FOR SODIUM AND WATER REABSORPTION

- COLLECTING DUCTS

- PAPILLARY DUCTS

- UNDER SAME HORMONAL CONTROL AS DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE

- COLLECTS FILTRATE FROM MULTIPLE NEPHRONS

- FILTRATE BECOMES URINE ON LEAVING COLLECTING DUCTS BECAUSE IT IS NO LONGER MODIFIED

- RECEIVES URINE FROM MULTIPLE COLLECTING DUCTS

- EMPTIES INTO MINOR CALYX

- CORTICAL NEPHRONS

- JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRONS

- 80% OF NEPHRONS

- SHORT NEPHRON LOOPS THAT EXTEND MINIMALLY INTO MEDULLA

- ADJUSTS CONTENT OF THE FILTRATE

- LONG NEPHRON LOOPS THAT EXTEND DEEP INTO MEDULLA

- MAIN PURPOSE IS TO CREATE AND MAINTAIN OSMOTIC GRADIENT NECESSARY TO CONCENTRATE FILTRATE

- 20% OF BLOOD PLASMA PASSING THROUGH RENAL CORPUSCLE IS PASSIVELY FILTERED FROM BLOOD BY GLOMERULUS

- EVERYTHING CAN BE FILTERED EXCEPT FORMED ELEMENTS AND PROTEINS

- THEN SELECTIVELY REABSORBS 99% OF FILTRATE, BUT ONLY SUBSTANCES IT REQUIRES, AND ACTIVELY SECRETES ADDITIONAL SUBSTANCES IT DOESNT WANT

- WATER

- ELECTROLYTES/IONS (SODIUM, POTASSIUM, CALCIUM ETC)

- NUTRIENTS

- ALL MOLECULES SMALLER THAN SMALL BLOOD PROTEIN ALBUMIN

- WATER

- IONS (SODIUM, POTASSIUM, CHLORIDE, CALCIUM ETC)

- GLUCOSE AND OTHER NUTRIENTS

- NITROGEN-BASED WASTE PRODUCTS (UREA)

- DRUGS AND TOXINS

- IT HAS 3 STEPS (GLOMERULAR FILTRATION, TUBULAR REABSORPTION, AND TUBULAR SECRETION)

- KIDNEYS FILTER 180 L IN MALES AND 150 L IN FEMALES EACH DAY

- FILTRATION IS POWERED BY NET PRESSURES WITHIN RENAL CORPUSCLE

- TUBULAR REABSORPTION AND SECRETION ACROSS RENAL TUBULE CELLS ARE DRIVEN BY MEMBRANE TRANSPORT (DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS, FACILIATED DIFFUSION, AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT)

- RATE IS INFLUENCED BY FILTRATION FLOW RATE THROUGH TUBULE (FASTER FLOW, LESS REABSORPTION AND VICE VERSA)

- BLOOD PRESSURE FORCES WATER AND DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES ACROSS GLOMERULAR CAPILLARY WALL INTO GLOMERULAR CAPSULE

- OCCURS IN RENAL CORPUSCLE AND DEALS WITH FLUID MOVING FROM GLOMERULUS INTO GLOMERULAR CAPSULE

- 3 LAYER FILTRATION MEMBRANE

- FORCES THAT INFLUENCE FILTRATION OF FLUIDS AND SMALL SOLUTES (HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE)

- NET FILTRATION PRESSURE HAS 3 FORCES

- NET FILTRATION PRESSURE (NFP) = GBHP (55) - BCOP (30) - CHP (15) = 10 MM HG

- CONTROL OF GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

- GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE

- ALLOWS PASSAGE OF BLOOD PLASMA AND SMALL PROTEINS (SMALLER THAN ALBUMIN)

- PREVENTS PASSAGE OF BLOOD CELLS, PLATELETS, AND LARGER PROTEINS

- GLOMERULAR BLOOD HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (GBHP)

- GLOMERULAR COLLOID OSMOTIC PRESSURE (GCOP)

- CAPSULAR HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (CHP)

- NET FILTRATION PRESSURE = GBHP (55)-BCOP (30)-CHP (15) = 10 mm HG

- ABOUT 55 mm HG

- DETERMINED MOSTLY BY SYSTEMIC BLOOD PRESSURE

- FAVORS FILTRATION INTO CAPSULAR SPACE

- ABOUT 30 mm HG

- CREATED MOSTLY BY ALBUMIN

- OPPOSES FILTRATION BY PULLING WATER BACK INTO GLOMERULAR CAPILLARIES

- ABOUT 15 mm HG

- GENERATED IN CAPSULAR SPACE BY FILTRATE ALREADY IN CAPSULAR SPACE AND TUBULE

- OPPOSES FILTRATION

- AFFERENT ARTERIOLE IS LARGER IN DIAMETER THEN EFFERENT ARTERIOLE

- DIAMETER DIFFERENCES RAISED BLOOD PRESSURE IN GLOMERULAR CAPILLARIES

- STEADY NFP CAN BE MAINTAINED BY MAKING SLIGHT CHANGES IN ARTERIOLE DIAMETERS

- RATE AT WHICH FLUID IS FILTERED IN RENAL CORPUSCLE PER MINUTE

- 105 mL/MIN IN FEMALES, 125 mL/MIN IN MALES

- DEGREE OF REABSORPTION OF SUBSTANCES FROM FILTRATE DEPENDS ON 2 FACTORS

- CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES

- RATES OF FLOW

- IF GFR IS TO HIGH, SUBSTANCES ARE NOT REABSORBED SUFFICIENTLY, SINCE FLUID IS TRAVELING TO QUICKLY

- IF GFR IS TO LOW, WASTES ARE NOT ADEQUATELY EXCRETED, AS FLUID MOVES SLOWLY

- TUBULE CELL MEMBRANES REABSORB SOLUTES AND WATER

- 99% IS RETURNED TO PERITUBULAR CAPILLARIES

- ION TRANSPORT PATHWAYS ACROSS CELLS OF TUBULES

- PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE (PCT)

- NEPHRON LOOP - COUNTERCURRENT MULTIPLIER

- DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULES AND COLLECTING DUCTS

- WATER

- NUTRIENTS INCLUDING ALL GLUCOSE AND AMINO ACIDS

- IONS (SODIUM, POTASSIUM, CHLORINE, CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM, BICARBONATE, PHOSPHATE)

- WASTE SUBSTANCES

- NITROGEN-BASED WASTE PRODUCTS (AMMONIA, UREA, CREATINE)

- DRUGS (CAN BE DETECTED IN URINE TESTS)

- IONS (HYDROGEN AND POTASSIUM)

- TRANSCELLULAR ROUTE

- PARACELLULAR ROUTE

- SOLUTE TRAVELS FROM ONE SIDE OF A CELL TO OTHER SIDE

- INVOLVES PASSIVE AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

- PASSING THROUGH TIGHT JUNCTIONS OF ADJOINING NEIGHBORING CELLS

- PASSIVE TRANSPORT DRIVEN BY OSMOTIC OR ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENTS

- 2/3 OF WATER AND SOLUTES REABSORBED HERE

- SODIUM, POTASSIUM, AND WATER ARE REABSORBED EQUALLY SO FLUID HERE IS ISOSMOTIC TO BLOOD PLASMA

- SECRETION OF UREA, CREATININE, AMMONIUM ION, AND HYDROGEN ION

- IN MEDULLA DUE TO JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRON, THERE IS INTERSTITIAL FLUID GRADIENT DRIVEN BY SODIUM CHLORIDE (DEEPER INTO MEDULLA, MORE CONCENTRATED OSMOTIC GRADIENT OF INTERSTITIAL FLUID)

- DESCENDING LIM PROMOTES REABSORPTION OF WATER AND RETURNS IT TO PERITUBULAR CAPILLARY BED NETWORK (PERMEABLE TO WATER & IMPERMEABLE TO SOLUTES)

- TRAVELING UP THROUGH ASCENDING LIMB THE INTERSTITIAL FLUID GRADIENT BECOMES MORE DILUTE (ASCENDING LIMB IS NOT PERMEABLE TO WATER & SODIUM CHLORIDE IS ACTIVELY TRANSPORTED OUT OF FILTRATE TO MAINTAIN MEDULLARY OSMOTIC GRADIENT OF INTERSTITIAL FLUID)

- COUNTERCURRENT MULTIPLIER

- PRODUCES IN DEEP MEDULLA A HIGH OSMOTIC GRADIENT, WHICH IS IMPORTANT FOR REABSORPTION OF WATER FROM COLLECTING DUCTS

- CONCENTRATES URINE TO MINIMIZE WATER LOSS FROM BODY AND HELPS TO MAINTAIN PROPER BLOOD VOLUME

- ALDOSTERONE

- ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)