Describe the structure and function of the:

a.  Ureters

b.  Urinary bladder

c.  Urethra

i.  How does it vary in males in males vs. females?

a.  ureters=slender tubes that convey urine from the kidneys to the bladder

b.  urinary bladder=smooth collapsible muscular sac that temporarily stores urine

c.  uretha=a thin-walled muscular tube that drains urine

i.  the urethra in females is 4cm and in males it's 20 cm

1.  pineal gland

2.  pituitary gland

3.  thyroid gland

4.  parathyroid gland

5.  thymus gland

6.  adrenal glands

organs=pancreas, ovary, testis

List thefunctions of the kidney

a.  Which nitrogenous wastes are excreted by the kidney?

How are these nitrogenous wastes produced?

1.  Removal of nitrogenous wastes

a.  urea and ammonia

b.  creatinine

c.  uric acid and nucleic acid

2.  Regulation of ions in the blood Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl-, HPO4-

3.  Regulation of acid base balance of blood (pH)

*excrete H+ and conserve HCO3-

*keeps blood pH at 7.4

4.  Regulation of blood volume

5.  Produces erythropoietin, if O2 levels are too low, this tells the body to produce RBC's

6.  Drug detoxification

7.  Maintains blood glucose thru gluconeogenesis

List the different classes of hormones

a.  Describe the characteristics of each class

A.  Water soluble

1.  Protein and peptide hormones

ex. ADH, oxytocin, insulin, and hGH

2.  Amine hormones

*Catecholamines(NE&E)and dopamine

-Made from tryosine

*Histamine

*Seratonin & melatonin

-Made from tryptophan

B Lipid soluble

1. Steroid hormones

*Derived from cholesterol

*Bound to transport proteins

2.  Thyroid hormones

*tyrosine & iodine

external anatomy

1.  covered by a capsule

2.  body wall region is T12-L3 region

3.  retroperitoneal

4.  covered by connective and adipose tissue

5.  Renal hilus- the indent on the medial surface

internal anatomy=layers

a.  renal cortex-outer renal corpuscles, involved in filtering

b.  renal medulla-middle

*renal pyramids and papilla drain into minor calyces from the papilla to the major calyces

c.  renal pelvis-innermost continues as the ureter

The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) decreases when:

a.  the affernet arteriole dilates

b.  atrial natiuretic peptide is present

c.  the afferent arteriole dilates

d.  angiotensin 11 is present

neurohypophysis= The posterior lobe plus the infundibulum, connected to the hypothalamus by nerve fibers

adenohypophysis= The anterior pitituitary, it is composed of glandular tissue, and manufactures and releases a # of hormones, connected to the hypothalamus, by blood vessels

1.  Blood enters the renal artery

2.  divides and gives rise to the segmental arteries

3.  between the pyramids are the interlobar arteries

4.  arcuate arteries curve like an arch over the pyramids

5.  gives rise to interlobular arteries

6.  gives rise to afferent arterioles

7.  to the glomerulus, a capillary

8.  to the efferent arterioles

Urine normally contains all of the following substances EXCEPT:

a.  glucose

b.  urea

c.  creatinine

d.  potassium ions

List all the hormones produced by the hypothalamus & secreted by the posterior pituitary

a.  Give the function of each

The ascending limb of the Loop of Henle is:

a.  permeable to water

b.  impermeable to water

c.  permeable to solutes

d.  both b and c

Describe the microanatomy of the kidney

a.  What is the functional unit of the kidney called?

i.  Describe its structure

ii.  Describe the histology of each component

a.  nephron

i.  Renal corpuscle-Glomerulus and Bowman's capsule together

Renal tubule-Proximal next to the glomerulus

convoluted=twisted

ii.  Bowman's=simple squamous

PCT-simple cuboidal with microvilli

Descending limb=simple squamous

Ascending limb=simple cuboidal and columnar

Which of the following is produced within the kidney?

a.  angiotensin converting enzyme

b.  antidiuretic hormone

c.  renin

d.  atrial natriuretic peptide

Describe glomerular filtration

a.  Which substances are filtered out of the blood

b.  Which substances are not filtered out of the blood

c.  Define:

i.  GBHP

ii.  CHP

iii.  BCOP

iv.  Which of these promote filtration? Oppose?

The glomerulus has pores like a strainer

a.  H20, ions, glucoses, a.a, and nitrogenous wastes

b.  plasma proteins, RBC's, and platelets

c. i.  BP within the glomerulus

ii.  opposes glomerular filtration rate

iii.  BCOP keeps H2O in the plasma by opposin filtration, large plasma proteins, and albumin can't pass through

List All hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary.

a.  Give the function of each

FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH, PRL, GH

Gonadotropic hormones=FSH and LH

FSH=follicle stimulating

LH=produce testosterone or ovulation

TSH=thryoid stimulating, increases the metabolism

ACTH=corticol stimulates the adrenal cortex

PRL=milk production, breast tenderness

GH or somatotropin=tissue growth

When antidiuretic hormone is present:

a.  more Na+ is excreted in the urine

b.  the urine is more dilute

c.  the urine is more concentrated

d.  both a and b

A renal corpuscle consists of

a.  bowman's capsule and proximal convoluted tubule

b.  afferent arteriole and glomerulus

c.  glomerulus, bowman's capsule, and renal tubule

d.  glomerulus and bowman's capsule

 The proximal convoluted tubule is lined with:

a.  simple columnar cells with goblet cells

b.  simple squamous cells

c.  simple cuboidal cells with microvilli

d.  pseudostratified ciliated columnar cells

The functional unit of the kidney is the:

a.  juxtaglomerular apparatus

b.  nephron

c.  renal corpuscle

d.  renal pyramid

65% of the tubular fluid is reabsorbed in the:

a.  proximal convuluted tubule

b.  ascending limb of the loop of Henle

c.  collecting duct

d.  distal convoluted tubule

Glomerular filtration is opposed by:

a.  Blood colloid osmotic pressure

b.  Capsular hydrostatic pressure

c.  Glomerular hydrostatic pressure

d.  Both a and b

Too high=Too little reabsorption

Too low=Too much reabsorption

List the hormones and their actions produced by:

a.  thyroid galnd

b.  parathyroid gland

c.  adrenal medulla

d.  adrenal cortex

i.  mineralcorticoids

ii.  glucocorticoids

e.  pancreas

i.  beta and alpha cells

f.  testies

g.  ovaries

h.  pineal gland

i.  thymus gland

ii.  What happens after puberty?

a.  follicular cells produce T4(thyroxine) and T3(triiodthyroxine)

-From iodine and tyrosine parafollicular cells(C cells)produce calcitonin, which lowers blood calcium

*T3andT4

1.  increases oxygen use in BMR

2.  increases body temperature

3.  stimulates

*protein syntehsis

*glucose and fatty acid catabolism

4.  enhances NE and E, increases heart rate and BP

b.  Chief(principal)cells produce PTH

*increases blood calcium

c.  Adrenal cortex

i.  aldosterone

inflammatory response

-balance the effects of insulin

-regulate the metabolism of carbs, fats, and proteins

d.  Adrenal medulla

-Controlled by the sympathetic division of the NS

-Produces NE & E

*kidneys reabsorb Na+ and water and excrete K+

ii. cortisol(hydrocortisone), cortisone

*secreted in response to ACTH

*helps:

-maintain bp and cardiovascular function

-slows down the immune system

e.  Islets of Langerhans:

*Beta cells Insulin

-Lowers blood glucose

*Alpha cells secrete Glucagon

-increase blood glucose

-stimulates glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis

f.  produces testosterone

g.  produces estrogen and progesterone

h.  produces melatonin

*derived from seratonin, levels are high at night; and low during the day

-sets biological clock

i.  Shrinks after puberty

secretes thymosins-regulates T-lymphocyte development

ii.  The thymus gland shrinks after puberty

Describe the following conditions

a.  diabetes insipidus

b.  diabetes mellitus

i.  Type1

ii.  Type11

c.  hypothyroidism

d.  hyperthyroidism & Graves disease

e.  Addison's disease

f.  pituitary dwarfism, gigantism and acromegaly

a.  polyurea, polydipsia, caused by idadequate ADH

b.  caused by hypersection or inaction of insulin, polydipsia, polyuria, polyphagia, hyperglycemia, glycosuria, ketonuria

i.  (10%) insulin dependant

ii.  (90%) non insulin dependant

*insulin resistance

*heredity, age obesity

c.  (cretinism) congenital

*stunted growth, mental impairment, large facial features

(myxedema) underactive thyroid in adults

d.  *autoimmune, antibodies mimic TSH, edema behind the eyes=expothalamus

e.  adrenal insufficiency, hypocortisolism

-hypersection of cortisol

*autoimmune(70%)

f.  dwarfism=hypopituitarism

giantism=hyperpituitarism in childhood

acromegaly=when ends of long bones keep growing into adulthood

In general describe tubular reabsorption

a.  Which substances are reabsorbed? Not reabsorbed?

b.  Table 26.3

Filtrate is reabsorbed into the bloodstream

a.  Na+, glucose, amino acids, lactic acids, HCO3-, Cl-, K+, Ca++, Mg++, water via osmosis, and urea are all reabsorbed. Creatinine is not reabsorbed 

List the hormones that cause :

a.  water retention

b.  reabsorption of salt in the kidneys

c.  increased blood calcium levels

d.  decreases blood calcium levels

e.  increased blood glucose

f.  decreased blood glucose

g.  uterine contractions

h.  milk production in the mammary glands

i.  increased metabolic rate

j.  development os gametes

k.  production of sex hormones

i.  testosterone

ii.  estrogen and progesterone

l.  growth

m.  stress response

a.  ADH and aldosterone

b.  aldosterone

c.  PTH

d.  calcitonin

e.  glucagon

f.  insulin

g.  oxytocin

h.  PRL

i.  TSH

j.  testosterone, extrogen, progesterone

k. i. testes

ii. ovaries

l.  GH

m.  mineralcorticoids, mainly glucocorticol

Which substances are reabsorbed in the:

a.  PCT

b.  Loop of Henle

i.  descending loop

ii.  ascending loop

c.  DCT

a.  65% of filtrate reabsorbed here

*  Na+, glucose, a.a, lactic acid

*HCO3-

*Cl-, K+, Ca++, Mg++

*Water via osmosis

*urea

b.  *permiable to water

*impermiable to solutes

*permeable to Na+, Cl-, and cationjs

*impermeable to water

c.  water, Na+, Cl-, Ca+

Describe the GAS response:

a.  What happens during

i.  Alarm(Fight or Flight)

ii.  Resistance

iii.  Exhaustion

General adaption syndrome

i. NE and E released, prepares for "flight"

*short

ii.  (longer duration) mineralcorticoids

CRH to ACTH to cortisol to GHRH to hGH to glycogen to glucose to ATP

TRH to TSH to thyroxine to glucose to ATP

Describe the stages of the menstral cycle

a.  Days 1-5

b.  Days 6-12

c.  Days 13-14

d.  Days 15-25

a.  In ovaries:  follicular phase

*Secondary follicle growing

*In uterus: menstral flow(50-150 mL)

* due to decreased progesterone levels

b.  Preovulatory phase

*In ovaries follicular phase continues

*FSH stimulates secondary follicles to grow

*One becomes graafian follicles with secondary oocytes

*granulosa cells secrete estrogen

atretic follicles

*In uterus

*Repair of endrometrium proliferative

c.  ovulation

*LH promotes release of secondary oocytes

d.  postovulatory phase

*In ovary:luteal phase

LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone and estrogen

*In uterus: secretory phase endometrial lining thickens

The hypothalamus secretes GnRH

The anterior pituitary releases LH and FSH

menarche=The first menstral period

menopause=The period of life when prompted by hormonal changes, ovulation and menstruation cease

What happens if fertilization does occur?

a.  describe the function of the placenta

b.  describe the function of (HCG)

Firtilization must occur within 12-24 hours of ovulation, in the upper 1/3 of the fallopian tube

*Secondary oocyte completes meiosis 11

*Zygote divides by mitosis to morula to blastocyst

*Inner cell mass

*Trophoblast

*Implantation

*Gives rise to the chorion

*Secretes (hCG)

*The corpus luteum continues to secrete estrogen and progesterone until the placenta takes over

Inner cell mass

Embrionic disc

Amniotic cavity

Primary germ layers

a.  endoderm

epithelial lining of cavities and organs

b.  mesoderm

All muscle, cartilage, bone, ct, blood, bone marrow

c.  ectoderm

nervous tissue, epidermis, etc

3rd week=angiogenesis

12th week=placenta fully formed

*Chorion of fetus and endometrium of mother

*placenta previa

a.  Corpus luteum degenerates to corpus albicans

b.  progesterone levels decrease

breast tenderness

irritability  PMS

mestruation

c.  GnRH, FSH and LH levels increase

new ovarian cycle

Menstrual flow is due to decreased progesterone levels

Estrogen controls growth of the uterine lining during the first part of the menstrual cycle

Describe the stages of the ovarian cycle

a.  What role do LH and FSH play?

b.  What role does the corpus luteum play?

1.  menstrual phase

in ovaries=follicular phase, secondary follicles growing

in uterus=menstrual flow

2.  preovulatory phase

in ovaries, the follicular phase continues

*FSH stimulates secondary follicles to grow

in uterus=repair of endometrium

3.  ovulation

LH promotes secondary oocyte

4.  postovulatory

in ovary=luteal phase

LH stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone and estrogen

uterus=secretory phase

What is a vasectomy?

Describe the function of the following

*seminiferous tubules

*interstial tubules

*epididymis

*vas deferens

*seminal vesicles

*cowper's glands

*testosterone

seminiferous tubules=spermatagonia to spermatocytes to spermatazoa to steroli cells, which protect sperm and form a blood-testis barrier

interstitial cells=produce testosterone

epididymis=sperm maturation and storage

vas deferens=empties into the ejactulatory duct and joins with the urethra.  This is cut during a vasectomy

seminal vesicles=add alkaline fluid and fructose to sperm, also prostaglandins and clotting proteins

cowper's gland=lubricates the penis and urethra

testosterone=responsible for the development and maintance of secondary male sex characteristics

Why is it important for the testes to descend into the scrotum?

Describe cryptochidism

What is the function of a diuretic?

a.  What effects do diuretics have on the kidney tubules?

To dilute urine

As ions are transported out of the ascending limb, water is drawn out of the descending limb

Describe the composition of urine

a.  which substances would not be found in the urine of a healthy individual?

50mOsm/L to 1200mOsm/L

pH 4.5-8.2

95% water

5% urea, NaCl, K, creatinine, and uric acid

proteins and glucose

hemodialysis=hooked up to a blood filtering machine

continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis=A bag of dialysate is put in, it helps cleanse

What % of the human body is water?

a.  How is water distributed throughout the body?

b.  Define intracellular, extracellular, and interstitial fluid

55-60% water(40L)

65% intracellular

35%extracellular

interstitial=25%

plasma=8%

other=2%

intra=within the cell

extra=outside the cell

interstitial=between the cell

What are the primary sources of water in the body?

a.  How is fluid intake regulated?

food and drink=food(700mL)drink(1600mL)

metabolic=200mL

total=2500mL/day

intake regulated by the hypothalamus

How are fluids lost from the body?

a.  How is fluid output regulated?

kidneys=1500mL/day

skin=500mL/day

lungs=300mL/day

GI tract=200mL/day

output regulated by ADH and renin-angiotensin-aldosteron

dehydration

water intoxification

Describe the following imbalances

a.  respiratory acidosis

b.  respiratory alkalosis

c.  metabolic acidosis

d.  metabolic alkalosis

a.  blood pH decreases due to increased PCO2

b.  bloodpH increases due to decreased PCO2

ex.  hyperventilation

c.  low pH and low HCO3-

d.  rising blood pH and high HCO3-

What role do each of the following play in maintaining normal blood pH?

a.  buffer systems

b.  respiratory systems

c.  urinary systems

a.  resist changes in pH

b.  rids body of excess H+ in minutes

c.  rids body of excess H+ in hours

Describe the mechanism of the following buffer systems:

a.  bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer system

b.  phosphate buffer system

c.  protein buffer system

d.  define an acid and base

a.  HCl + NaHCO3 to H2CO3 + NaCl

b.  important in ICF and urine

NaH  +  NaH2PO4 to Na2HPO4 + H2O

HCl + Na2HPO to NaH2PO4 + NaCl

c.  albumin and hemoglobin

higher in ICF

COOH to COO + H+   NH2 + H to NH3

d.  acids add H

bases neutralize H

T or F

Fimbriae catch ovulated oocytes and direct them into the uterine tubules

Which cell type is actually ovulated from the ovary

A.  primary oocyte

B.  ovum

C.  oogonium

D.  tertiary oocyte

E.  secondary oocyte

The usual site of fertilization is the

A.  uterine tube

B.  uterus

C.  vulva

D.  ovary

The reason why the testes are suspended in the scrotum is

A.  To create extra space for the sex organs

B.  To provide a cooler temperature

C.  To protect sperm from the immune system

The primary sex organ of the male is the

A.  epididymis

B.  testes

C.  prostate

D.  penis

The organ that makes estrogen and progestrogen is the

A.  ovary

B.  hypothalamus

C.  vagina

D.  pineal gland

T or F

Drinking alcoholic beverages decreases urine output because it causes increases activity by
ADH

T or F

FSH and LH cause the maturation of the follicle cells of the thyroid gland

T or F

Sympathetic nerve stimulation causes the release of NE and E from the adrenal medulla

T or F

The destruction of beta cells of the pancreas is an auto-immune condition characteristic of adult onset of diabetes

T or F

The secretion of melatonin follows a night-day cycle, becoming low @ night and high during daylight

The hypothalamus directly controls controls the secretions of the

A.  thyroid gland

B.  adrenal gland

C.  pituitary gland

D.  mammary gland

E.  gonads

The chemical classification of hormones does Not include

A.  protein-based hormones

B.  glucose-containing hormones

C.  amino acid-based hormones

D.  steroid hormones

The adrenal gland produces the following hormones Except

A.  epinephrine

B.  androgens

C.  aldosterone

D.  cortisone

E.  renin

Which of the following is Not a major endocrine organ, but produces hormones in addition to its major function

A.  thymus

B.  pituitary

C.  pancreas

D.  kidneys

Which of the following is a steroid hormone?

A.  ACTH

B.  testosterone

C.  PTH

D.  epinephrine

E.  TSH

Matching

1.  prolactin          A.  Raising Ca2 levels

2.  oxytocin       B.  stimulates ejection from the mammary glands

3.  thyroxine        C.  increases metabolic rate

4.  calcitonin        D.  lowers blood Ca2 levels

5.  parathyroid hormone        E.  stimulates milk production

1-E

2-B

3-C

4-D

5-A

Matching

1.  TSH       A.  released from posterior pituitary;causes kidneys to conserve water

2.  FSH       B.  released from anterior pituitary; causes follicles to grow and produce estrogen and spermatogenesis in the testes

3.  LH         C. released from anterior pituitary; causes thyroid gland to synthesize thyroxine

4.  oxytocin        D.  released from pituitary; causes ovulation and interstitial cells to produce testosterone in the testes

5.  ADH        E.  released from posterior pituitary; causes uterine contractions 

1-C

2-B

3-D

4-E

5-A

Matching

1.  TSH         A.  increases contraction of uterine smooth muscle

2.  GH        B.  causes the adrensl cortex to produce hormones

3.  oxytocin        C.  stimulates the production of thyroxine

4.  ACTH        D.  Affects the functions of the ovaries and testes

5.  FSH         E.  causes cells to undergo mitosis and increase in size

4. 

1-C

2-E

3-A

4-B

5-D

Matching

1.  insulin         A.  decrease in body metabolism

2.  ADH         B.  High levels of blood sugar

3.  aldosterone         C.  decrease in blood Ca2 levels

4.  thyroxine        D.  loss of body fluids

5.  parathyroid hormone         E.  loss of Na+ from extracellular fluids

1-B

2-D

3-E

4-A

5-C

Matching

1.  FSH        A.  stimulates development of the follicle in the ovaries

2.  GH        B.  stimulates the kidney tubules to reabsorb water from urine

3.  ACTH       C.  stimulates the thyroid gland

4.  TSH        D.  stimulates the adrenal cortex

5.  ADH        E.  mobilizes fats, spares glucose and promoates the protein synthesis necessary growth

1-A

2-E

3-D

4-C

5-B

Matching

1.  adenohypophysis       A.  ADH

2.  neurohypophysis       B.  aldosterone

3.  thyroid gland       C.  TSH

4.  adrenal gland        D.  calcitonin

5.  pineal gland        E.  melatonin

1-C

2-A

3-D

4-E

Arrange the following structures in the correct sequence in which urine passes through them to the external environment (1) ureter (2) renal pelvis (3) calyx (4) urinary bladder (5) urethra

A.  3,2,1,4,5

B.  3,4,1,5,2

C.  1,2,3,4,5

D.  2,4,1,3,5

The most important factor affecting the glomerular filtration rate is

A.  blood osmotic pressure

B.  blood hydrostatic pressure

C.  capsular osmotic pressure

D.  negative pressure

Which structure is the muscular tube that delivers urine to the bladder?

A.  urethra

B.  prostate

C.  ureter

D.  renal pelvis