In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights.  A ____ statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks.  ____ usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement.  Historically, ____ originally meant basic understanding.  Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally (in the early seventeenth century), it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.

 The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life.  Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position.  Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively ,and throughly a writer has proved the thesis.

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences.  Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as the groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words.  In the multiple-choice section, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax.  In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else.  Usually a symbol is something concrete--such as an object, action, character, or scene--that represents something more abstract.  However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex.  One system classifies symbols in three categories:  (1) Natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to represent ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge).  (2) Conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scales of justice for lawyers).   (3) Literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are generally recognized.  However, a work's symbols may be more complicated as is the whale in Moby Dick and the jungle in Heart of Darkness.  On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.

 The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

The consideration of style has two purposes:  (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices.  Some authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author (or a writer emulating that author's style).  Compare, for example, Jonathan Swift to George Orwell or William Faulkner to Ernest Hemingway.  We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose.  Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few examples.  (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors.  By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental or realist movement.

satire

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule.  Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, ____ is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing.   It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist:  irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm.  The effects of ___are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good ___, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.

From  the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something.  It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic, that is, intended to ridicule.  When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it's simply cruel.

rhetorical modes

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing.  The four most common ________and their purposes are as follows:  (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion.  The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics..  (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader.  Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action.  (3) The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described.  Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque.  Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective.  (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events.  This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.  These four writing modes are sometimes referred to as modes of discourse.

pedantic

 An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

point of view

In literature, the perspective from which a story is told.  There are two general divisions of point of view and many subdivision within those. (1) the first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I,"  and is a character in the story.  This narrator can be the protagonist, a participant (character in a secondary role), or an observer (a character who merely watches the action).  (2) the third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it."  There are two main subdivisions to be aware of:  omniscient and limited omniscient.  In the "third person omniscient" point of view, the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters.  This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and thinks at any given moment.  The "third person limited omniscient" point of view, as its name implies, presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining characters.  This definition applies in questions in the multiple-choice section.  However on the essay portion of the exam, the "point of view" carries an additional meaning.  When you are asked to analyze the author's point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude. [For a thorough discussion of point of view, see Story and Structure, the text used by the seniors.  In fact, you would be wise to get a copy of it from the thrift store because the introductory sections are wonderful discussions of how literature works.] 

metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity.  -language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

oxymoron

From  the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an -is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox.  Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness."  This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay.  Take note of the effect which the author achieves with this term.

parody

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule.  As comedy, - distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original.  As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original.  Well-written -offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written - offers only ineffectual imitation.  Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original.

periodic sentence

A sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end.  This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone.  For example:  "Ecstatic with my AP score, I let out a loud, joyful shout.!" The effect of a ____________________is to add emphasis and structural variety.  It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence.

personification

 A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions.  _____ is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

understatement

The ironic minimizing of fact, _____ presents something as less significant than it is.  The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic.  ____ is the opposite of hyperbole.

transition

A word or phrase that links different ideas.  Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, ______ effectively signal a shift from one idea to another.  A few commonly used _____words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly and on the contrary. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of ____.  We will discuss these methods later.

tone

 Similar to mood, ____describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both.  ____is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language.  Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author's _______.  Some words describing ____are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and somber.

rhetoric

From  the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

syllogism

From the Greek for "reckoning together," a _____ (or -reasoning or - logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called "major" and the second, "minor")  that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion.  A frequently cited example proceeds as follows:

                major Premise:  All men are mortal.

                minor premise:  Socrates is a man

conclusion:  Therefore, Socrates is mortal.                                                                                                 

A - conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid.  - may also present the specific idea first ("Socrates") and the general second ("All men").

prose

One of the major divisions of genre, _____ refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms .  In -the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.

DENOTATION

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.

Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness.   For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose.  Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc.,  creates an author's style.

EUPHEMISM

From the Greek for "good speech," _____ are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept.  The ______may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement.  Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of ____.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

FIGURE OF SPEECH

A device used to produce figurative language.  Many compare dissimilar things.  Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

GENERIC CONVENTIONS

This term describes traditions for each genre.  These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing.  On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.

GENRE

The major category into which a literary work fits.  The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama.  However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves.  For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.).  Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc.  Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc.  On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres:  autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.

HYPERBOLE

 A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement.  ____often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible.  Often, ___produces irony.

IMAGERY

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions.   On a physical level, _____uses terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory ______.  On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing.  For example, a rose may present visual _____ while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection (It is the highest flower on the Great Chain of Being).  An author may use complex _____ while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile.  In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work.  On the AP exam, pay attention to how an author creates ______and to the effect of this ______.