schema

The structures of typical conversations that we follow (based on our experience of that type of conversation)

e.g. doctor patient interview

Noun

A noun is a word that identifies:

a person (man, girl, engineer, friend)
a thing (horse, wall, flower, country)
an idea, quality, or state (anger, courage, life, luckiness)

The way that people in a conversation change the way they speak in order to 'accomodate' to how the other participant speaks. This could be moving towards or further way from the others register.

eg. A patient using medical terminology in converstation with a doctor 

Verb

A verb describes what a person or thing does or what happens. For example, verbs describe:

an action – jump, stop, explore
an event – snow, happen
a situation – be, seem, have
a change – evolve, shrink, widen

Adjective

An adjective is a word that describes a noun, giving extra information about it. For example:

an exciting adventure
a green apple
a tidy room

Adverb

Expressive Purpose

Where the purpose of the text is emotionally lead, the writer is trying to express their emotion.

e.g. "What a great song!"

Pronoun

Pronouns are used in place of a noun that is already known or has already been mentioned. This is often done in order to avoid repeating the noun. For example:

Laura left early because she was tired.
Anthony brought the avocados with him.
That is the only option left.
Something will have to change.

 when someone has a particular attitude or way of considering a matter, this can change throughout the text 

When a regional person speaks more RP to move towards the other to show their like for them

eg. At the start of a conversation caling someone 'mate' but then shift to calling them 'sir'

Personal Pronouns

Fluency/ Non - Fluency term

Fillers

Fillers, are used in real life speech such as 'um' this is a non - fluency feature. Fillers portray an emotion to the reader / audience for example being confused or thinking etc. 

'I was um... Just heading to my um... English lesson' 

Interrogatives

Subjective Pronouns

The personal pronouns I, you, we, he, she, it, we, and they are known as subjective pronouns because they act as the subjects of verbs:

She saw Catherine.

We drove Nick home.

I waved at her.

Fluency/ Non - Fluency term

Fillers

Fillers, are used in real life speech such as 'um' this is a non - fluency feature. Fillers portray an emotion to the reader / audience for example being confused or thinking etc. 

'I was um... Just heading to my um... English lesson' 

3 Part Structures 

A form of speech which illicits a three part dialogue between two people. Typical speech seen when used by teachers (e.g: T: what's 2+2?

           S: it's 4

                         T: yes that's right)

Objective Pronoun

The personal pronouns me, you, us, him, her, it, and them are called objective pronouns because they act as the objects of verbs and prepositions:

Catherine saw her.

Nick drove us home.

She waved at me.

Blank Verse is poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameters. 

EXAMPLE:

"And spills the upper boulders in the sun;" 

Attribution 

When you attribute a speech to a character 

e.g- "he said" "she said" 

1. A simple sentence is a sentence which has one clause with a single subject and predicate. E.g. The train was late. Subject=train Predicate=was late.

A complex sentence is a sentence containing an independent clause and at least one dependent clause. E.g. She returned the computer, after noticing it was damaged.

'She returned the computer' is the independent clause as it could be read by itself and still make sense.

Covert prestige

A covert prestige dialect is one that is generally perceived by the dominant culture group as being inferior but which compels its speakers to use it to show membership in an exclusive community.

Politeness in speech

Lakoff (1975) identified three forms of politeness: formal, deference, and camaraderie. Women's language is characterized by formal and deference politeness, whereas men’s language is exemplified by camaraderie. Politeness in speech is described in terms of positive and negative face.

Listening and attentiveness

Research says Women attach more weight than men to the importance of listening in conversation, with its connotations of power to the listener as confidant of the speaker. This attachment of import by women to listening is inferred by women’s normally lower rate of interruption. Men, however, interrupt far more frequently with non-related topics, especially in the mixed sex setting and, far from rendering a female speaker's responses minimal, are apt to greet her conversational spotlights with silence.

Gender specific nouns 

Changing the topic of conversation

According to Bruce Dorval in his study of same-sex friend interaction, males tend to change subject more frequently than females. This difference may well be at the root of the conception that women chatter and talk too much. Goodwin (1990) observes that girls and women link their utterances to previous speakers and develop each other's topics, rather than introducing new topics.

Turn Taking 

As the work of Victoria DeFrancisco shows, female linguistic behaviour characteristically encompasses a desire to take turns in conversation with others, which is opposed to men’s tendency towards centring on their own point or remaining silent when presented with such implicit offers of conversational turn-taking as are provided by hedges such as "y’ know" and "isn’t it". 

Minimal responses

One of the ways in which the communicative behaviours of men and women differ is in their use of minimal responses, i.e., paralinguistic features such as ‘mm’ and ‘yeah’, which is behaviour associated with collaborative language use. Women tend to use collaborative language whilst talking to other Women while Men generally use them less frequently than women, and, where they do, it is usually to show agreement.

Tag Questions

Lakoff observed that, in certain contexts, women use question tags more frequently than men do. She defines the tag-question as: “A declarative statement without the assumption that the statement is to be believed by the addressee: one has an out, as with questions. The tag gives the addressee leeway, not forcing him to go along with the views of the speaker”

Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive personal pronouns include myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. These are used to refer back to the subject of the clause in which they are used:

I fell and hurt myself.

Daisy prepared herself for the journey.

The children had to look after themselves.

Preposition

A preposition is a word such as after, in, to, on, and with. Prepositions are usually used in front of nouns or pronouns and they show the relationship between the noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence. They describe, for example, the position of something, the time when something happens, or the way in which something is done.

Conjunction

A conjunction (also called a connective) is a word such as and, because, but, for, if, or, and when. Conjunctions are used to connect phrases, clauses, and sentences.The two main kinds are known as coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.