TV + IRV + ERV

amount of air that can be exhaled after maximum inhalation

ERV + RV,

volume of gas in the lung after a normal expiration

VC + RV

total volume lungs can hold

1. amount of air moved in and out of lungs

2 stiffness of lungs/ chest wall

3. speed of air

4 lungs response to chest physical therapy

5 Diffusion characteristics of the membrane in which the gas passes through

in brain

networks of neurons in the brain stem that controls the muscles of breathing

control air flow in and out of lungs

diaphragm is the major muscle

almost the same as anatomic dead space

different in patients with lung cancer because not all of aveolar space is used

a reversible dosease, brought on by allergic reactions to allergens in the air

cells that line the respiratory tract give off excessive mucus, blocking the airways

contraction of the smooth muscles in the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles, decreases diameter making breathing difficult

Symptoms: coughing, wheezing or difficulty of breathing

when elastic tissue in the alveoli is switched with connective tissue

the decreased elasticity makes the alveoli remain inflated and expiration becomes difficult, damages alveolar capillaries and lowers blood O2 levels

bacterial, viral or fungal infection

alveoli become infected & inflamed with fluid and dead white blood cells, making diffuion from lung to capillaries more difficult

1. other hormones

2. neural mechanisms

3. various important substances

foamy material made up of lipids and proteins that covers the inner surface of the alveoli of the lungs

-surfactant reduces surface tension of the alveolar boundary and makes inflation of the lungs easier, the surfactant also promotes the stability of the alveoli during deflation preventing collapse

1.thin aveolar fluid with pulmonary surfactant

2. aveolar epithelium, consists of squamous epithelial cells on their own basement membrane

3. thin interstitial space ( located between the alveolar epithelium and pulmonary capillary)

4. vascular endothelial cells of the capillary wall

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

Lutenizing Hormone

GnRH

gonalreleasing hormone

Meiosis- 4 haploid cells created

Mitosis- 2 diploid cells created

Genetic transcription

double helix is unwound and RNA polymerase binds to a small sequence of DNA(the promoter element)

 uses the diaphragmm- thin sheet of muscle moves downward and enlarges the thoracic cavity

external intercoastals-pulls ribs upward forwards and outwards

accessory muscles used in exercise

normally a passive affair

abdominal wall muscles, raise the pressure in the abdominal cavity

contract during coughing, vomiting and defecation

internal intercoastals- contract and pull ribs downwards backwards and inwards

-homeostasis

-digestion and metabolism

-reproduction, growth and development

1. steroids- derived from cholesterol

2. peptides & proteins

3.amines

4.eicosanoids

5. retinoids- derived from retinol

intracellular

other hormones

neural mechanisms

by various important substances

1. the hormone itself can provide the negative signal

2. other hormones released by the first hormone provide the negative signals

3.the effect of the hormone is the negative signal

masses of spherical structures that make up the thyroid

--filled with colloid, which is mad eup of thyroglobuling

T4

Thyroid

T3

Thyroid

too little thyroid hormone is secreted into the blood

atrophy of  the gland or lack of iodine in diet

can cause a goiter

can cause retardation of growth in infants

in adults- large weight gain, and general slowing down of movements

abnormally high metabolic rate, wight loss, bulging eyes, toxic goiter, rapid heart weight- Graves

can be fixed with surgery

parathyroid

secreted when calcium levels are low because there are calcium receptors in the parathyroids plasma membrane

occurs if the parathyroids are damages or surgically removed

blood calcium  ion concentration drops leading to muscle cramps, twitches, convulsions and seizures

enlargement of the parathyroid glands

leads to inc bone reabsorption, which can lead to bone damage

pineal gland

involved in daily rythms

destruction of beta cells by T cells

glucose production up, bodies use of glucose is down

drop in blood pH may occur

association with obesity

beta cells are less responsive

1. nigenous base, guanine, adenine, thymine or cytosine

2. pentose suger- deoxyribose

3. phosphate group

contain genetic info without which it would be impossible for us to synthesize proteins, to survive and perpetuate our species

-each protein is represented in the DNA molecule as a master sequence of nucleotides

copying of the gene

unwinds, RNA polymerase binds to a small sequence of DNA close to the coding region(promoter element), RNA polymerase then transcribes the DNA into RNA by tracking slong the DNA strand, reading off the sequence and running off a complementary strand

cap the ends of chromosomes

two functions-

1. insures proper replication of the ends of the chromosomes

2. protect the ends of chromosomes from degradation

haploid

sperm & ova

23 chromosomes

go through meiosis

Trisomy 21

1. Bade changes

2. Insertions or deletions of extra bases during replication

3.sections of DNA may be deleted transposed or inserted into other chromosomes

4. expanision in numbers of trinucleotide repeats in a gene sequence

variations in chromosome #

variations in chromosome structure

1. deletions

2. translocations

3. inversions

4. duplications

5. rings

errors in replication or crossing over

mutations in genes that normally repair breaks in DNA

environmental factors, such as uv light, radiation, ect

surround the oocyte

secrete estrogen and inhibin

(male equivalent- Sertoli)

come from granulosa cells

secrete estrogens, inhibin and progesterone

synthesize androgens

(male equivalent= Leydig)

mainly testosterone, essential for development of the reproductive organs

Synthesized by Leydig cells

secreted by sertoli cells into the blood stream

suppresses FSH when spermatogenesis is proceeding too rapidly

cause cellular proliferation and development and growth

produced from granulosa cells

secreted by the luteal cells

helps to develop the placenta during pregnancy

secreted by the granulosa cells

inhibits FSH secretion

made by the theca

used to produce estradiol by the granulosa cells

-monitors &adjusts the composition of tubular fluid

-absorbs damaged spermatozoa & cellular debris

-stores spermatozoa

come from spermatogonia

contain 46 chromosomes

generate secondary spermatocytes

23 chromosomes

from primary spermatocytes

after secondary spermatocytes

produced after meiosis 2

22 autosomes & an X or Y

1. Head-

a.nucleus- with protamines

b. acrosome- made up mainly from the Golgi apparatus & enzymes similar to those found in lysosomes- which help the sperm penetrate the oocyte

2. Middle piece- contains mitochondria that generate ATP for movement

3. Tail- contractile microtubules that drive the sperm cell through the surrounding fluid

*contents of the vas deferens- 20-30%, high conc of estrogen

*prostate gland secretions- 10-20% mildly alkaline- neutralizes womens vaginal secretions- w/out spermatoza would be inactivated

*semial vesicel secretions- 60% of the final volume of the semen, mucoid consistency, fructose and prostaglandins

*bulborethral gland secretions- supply a small volume of mucous secretion, minor lubricatory function

carry oocytes released by the ovaries to the uterus

-sight of fertilization

-openings lined with fimbriae

1. perimetrium

2. myometrium

3. endometrium- consists of a layer of ciliated columnar epithelium

1. proliferative phase

2. secretory phase

3. Ischemic phase

4. mestral phase

sheet that covers the ovaries, simple cuboidal epithelium

-overlies a dense layer of connective tissue called tunica albuginea

causes metaphase arrest

inactivate the M-phase promoting factor

dominant follicle

expands rapidly and more fluis accumulates in the antrum pushing the oocyte to one side

1. follicular phase of the ovarian cycle

2. ovulatory phase of the ovarian cycle

3. luteal phase of the ovarian cycle

lasts until day 14

6-12 follicles

follicle stimulating hormone

secretes more estradiol

lasts 13-14 days

LH controls

exerts its influence with progesterone

proliferative

secretory

ischemic (premenstal)

menstral

-caused by estradiol secretion from granulosa cells

-endometrium is thin and starts to gain thickness

-

caused by progesterone secreted from luteal cells

growth is stopped

result of ischemia caused by vasoconstrictor spasms of the spiral arterioles

endometrium is discarded

once the sperm binds to the zona pellucida

breaks down the acrosomal cap and releases enzymes enclosed in the acrosome

occurs when the sperm enters the cytoplasm of the mature secondary oocyte, which triggers an inc in the Ca+ concentration, which then tells the oocyte to proceed with meiosis 2

creates a "true ovum"

1. zona pellucida dissolves

2. cells of the trophoblast attach themselves to endometrial cells- blastocyst then burrows itself into the eroded endometrium

3. development of the placenta- responsible for supplying the developing embryo with nutrients and oxygen

1. ectoderm

2. mesoderm

3.endoderm

-nervous system

-portions of most sensory organs

-lens of the eye

-adrenal medulla

-posterior pituitary gland

-epidermis

-hair

-nails

-sweat glands

muscle tissue

skeletal tissue

connective tissues

blood vessels

dermis

bone marrow

lymphatic tissue

kidney & ureters

gonads and gonadal ducts

adrenal cortex

epithelial linings of the digestive urinary and respiratory tracts

epithelial lining of vagina

liver

pancreas

thyroid

parathyroid

thymus

anterior pituitary

develops from ectoderm

amniotic fluid

amniocentesis

develops from the endoderm

source of red blood cell production

allantois is an extension, umbilical artery 

from the surrounding trophoblast

begins to form the placenta

1. 3 germ layers are formed

2. neural plate formation from the ectoderm

3. somites appear

1. small limb buds appear- 4th week

2. heart is beating

3. hand and foot rudiments are visible by the 5th week

4. embryo is fully enclosed in the chorion

1. digits have appeared

2. external ears are visible

3. eyes move anteriorly

4. distinct neck

6. major organ systems

7. brain cont to grow

8. cartilagenous model of the skeleton is laid down

9. external genitalia-- still too early to tell

end of the first trimester

(9-12 weeks)

1. male can be distinguished from female

2. kidney functioning begins

3. reflexes

fetus size and wt inc

fetus may start sucking its thumb and gripping movements can occur

eyes open

period of rapid growth

Human chorionic gonadotropin

(hCG)

secreted by the trophoblast

can be detected in urine within 9 days of conception

peaks at 3-4 months

stimulates the corpus luteal to secrete progesterone and estradiol

-detected for pregnancy tests

essential for implantation and early survival of the embryo

-stimulates the endometrium to secrete nutrients

-maintains the uterine lining

stimulates mammary gland production

Human Chorionic sommatomammotropin

directs maternal metabolism to generate a continuos supply of nutriendts such as glucose to the fetus

may be involved in mammary gland function