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KINE 323
TEST 2
63
Other
Undergraduate 3
06/01/2009

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Term
Ten Good Reasons to
Address Homophobia in Sport
Definition
 Improve team and coach
performance
 Decrease suicide rates
 Decrease incidence of
hate crimes and
harassment
 Challenge destructive
stereotypes
 Reduce fear, ignorance
and discrimination
 Create safe
environments
 Improve team chemistry
and learning
environment
 Remove athletic
participation barrier
 Redefine masculinity
 Make sport a safe place
for future generations
Term
Mosaics of identity
Definition
-Gender (identity/expression. - ethinicity - sexual identification -age, class, race, religion, sex, ability
Term
Sport’s gender regime:
Definition
 Characterized by vastly unequal distributions of power,
authority, prestige, resources between women and men and
between social classes and racial groups
 It’s masculine patterns appear to be natural because of it’s
historical persistence
 People such as athletic directors, men’s basketball and
football coaches, and male athletes in high-status sports are
at the center of this gender regime and are privileged in their
positions
Term
Institutional structures
Definition
 Constantly re-created by the day to day interactions of people
 Do not determine what people do, but set the conditions and
parameters in which people act
 The interactions that recreate the pattern of unequal gender relations
or “state of play” make up the gender regime of sport, the outcome
of which is a dominant form of heterosexual masculinity that is both
a product and an advocate of men’s violence
 This masculinity is marked by a sense of entitlement to athletic
opportunities, control of locker rooms, prestige, and resources
Term
 Trivialization
Definition
 Trivial – to have little value or importance (Cambridge
dictionary)
 Trivialize – the make something of less importance
than is really is (Cambridge dictionary)
Term
Media consumption has implications for:
Definition
 Aggression, violence, reckless behavior
 Lower self esteem if masculinity as defined by media is
not exhibited
 Can obtain desired image through purchase of certain
goods
 Treatment of women as sexualized/trivialized objects
Term
Privilage
Definition
 Assumption of entitlement to fair treatment on
basis of individual merits
 Identification with decision-makers, power
holders, information
 Shared understanding of institutional norms,
values, processes, structures
 Assumption of safety and acceptance
 Access to institutional services that support
success
Term
Privilage cont
Definition
 Unasked for
 Invisible
 Can you think of examples?
 Unearned
 Available to members of “majority” group
members in an organization
 Often mistaken for individual merit by “majority”
group members
 “majority” group = “advantaged”/”status” group in
society
Term
Minority group
Definition
Experience discrimination
Suffer social disadvantages because of
discrimination
Possess a strong self-consciousness based
on their shared experiences of discriminatory
treatment
Term
Race
Definition
 “Race” is a primitive but powerful classification system
that has been used around the world
 “Race” is based on a two-category classification system
premised on the rule of hypo-descent or the “one-drop
rule”
 The “one-drop rule” was developed by white men to
insure the “purity” of the “white race” and property
control by white men
 Mixed-race people challenge the validity of this socially
influential way of defining race
Term
Racial ideology in history
Definition
Racial classification systems were developed as white
Europeans explored and colonized the globe and
found that there were physical differences between
people
 These systems were used to justify colonization,
conversion, and even slavery and genocide
 According to these systems, white skin was the standard,
and dark skin was associated with intellectual inferiority
and slowed development
Term
Sport participation in Latinos
Definition
The experiences of Latino and Latina athletes
have been ignored until recently
 Stereotypes about physical abilities have
influenced perceptions of Latino athletes
 Latinos now make up over 25% of Major League
Baseball players
 Latinos often confront discrimination in school
sports
 Latinas have been overlooked due to faulty
generalizations about gender and culture
Term
The Dynamics of Racial &
Ethnic Relations in Sports
Definition
 Race and ethnicity remain significant in sports
today
 Today’s challenges are not the ones faced in the
past
 It is a mistake to think that racial and ethnic
issues disappear when desegregation occurs
 The challenge of dealing with inter-group
relations never disappears – it changes in terms
of the issues that must be confronted
Term
Self-Presentation
Definition
• Definition - the process by which people monitor and
control how they are perceived by other people.
• Grounded in an interactionist perspective
• Impressions are important
• Is self-presentation deceptive?
• convey favorable images of self
• thus engage in selective presentation
Term
The benefits of being
attractive….
Definition
􀅋Attractive children are more popular
􀅋Attractive applicants have a better chance of getting jobs, and of
receiving higher salaries.
􀅋In court, attractive people are found guilty less often.
􀅋We also believe in the 'what is beautiful is good' stereotype. The
good fairy/princess is always beautiful; the wicked stepmother is
always ugly - we moralize attractivenes
Term
The influence of Selfpresentation
on physical activity
Definition
• Motivation to participate or not
• Social identity
• Demotivating influence
Term
Two - Activity Choice and
Context
Definition
• Activity Choice
• Activity Context
Term
Three - Quality of
Athletic/Exercise
Participation
Definition
Exertion - SOCIAL FACILITATION
Effort – SOCIAL LOAFING
Excuses - SELF-HANDICAPPING
Term
Affective Response to
Physical Activity and
Sport
Definition
Social Anxiety
Social Physique Anxiety
Term
Social anxiety
Definition
The anxiety that occurs when we believe that
we are not creating the desired impression in
a social setting.
Term
Social Physique Anxiety
Definition
• Anxiety that results when a person perceives that
her/his physique is being negatively evaluated.
• High physique anxious people:
• avoid settings high in physique evaluation (more than less
physique anxious people)
• avoid activities which accentuate physique
• suffer depression related to their bodies
• may engage in weight loss practices which are harmful
Term
Female Athlete Triad
Definition
• Eating Disorder
• Amenorrhea
• Osteoporosis
Term
Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder (Bigorexia)
Definition
• “Preoccupation with the idea that one’s body is not
sufficiently lean and muscular. Characteristics
associated behaviors include long hours of lifting
weights and excessive attention to diet.”
• Preoccupation manifested in the following ways:
• Giving up important social, occupational, or recreational
activities due to compulsive need to maintain workout & diet
• Avoidance of situations where his/her body is exposed or
endures with marked distress or intense anxiety
• Preoccupation about body size/musculature inadequacy
• Primary focus on being too small rather than too big
Term
Gender Regime-
Definition
sexual divisions present within
an organization’s processes, practices, images,
ideologies, and distributions of power.
Term
Individuality-
Definition
the uniqeness of every person based
on style, creative abilities, and actions
Term
Individualism-
Definition
social ideology that is expressed as
an aggressive desire to be on top of or seen as
better than others.
Term
Three trends
Definition
 Three trends are pulling the gender regime
in sport simultaneously. They include:
 The Ghettoization Model
 The Just Do It Model
 The Social Justice Model
Term
The Ghettoization Model
Definition
 In the 1920s there was an expressed fear of a growing “manishness”
among physically active women.
 Competitive women’s sports was able to survive in highly marginalized
athletic ghettos;
 Women’s schools and universities
 Public sports organizations (both amateur and professional)
 Ability to survive based on “adapted model” of sports
 Les strenuous activity through less movement, bodily contact and aggression
 “concept of womanhood characterized by refinement, dignity, and self-control”
 i.e. women’s basketball, softball
 Market driven promotion of women athletes sex appeal
 “sexualized beauty queens”
 The unmodified “athlete” remains a male figure
 Ghettoization (playing in the margins) allows women’s sports to sidestep a
patriarchal backlash
 Relative autonomy and protection
Term
The Just Do It Model
Definition
 Approaches sex equity as though the institutional “center” is the place to be
and women deserve to be there just as men do.
 The “center” is a place of athletes and individualism
 Based on fairness (power, status, and resources should not be based on gender, but
rather skill)
 Based on two general limitations: 1)Lack of institutional analysis
2)Increasing reliance on large corporations to provide financial and cultural
support to promote a type of equity for females in sport.
 Just Do It Model assumes that if doors are opened, women can go “from
the margin to the center” or can break oppressive barriers in sport.
 Corporate Individualism is embraced to help push equity in sports.
 Can have negative affects such as celebrating only the elite female athletes and
inadvertently causing young females to endure physical malpractice to be highly
competitive.
 Although the just do it model encourages women to shift towards the
center, it may have a tendency to make women share men’s institutional
power, and re-create the same oppressive social relations with other
groups may it be racial-ethno based or class based.
Term
Sex Segregation vs. Integration
Definition
 True equal opportunity – allowing females to play with males in integrated
sports – why resist?
 “defending men’s historical ‘rights’ to control resources”
 -“Ability to provide ideological “proof” of natural physical superiority of all men
over all women”
 “Oppositional binary” – that men and women are categorically different
(and thus unequal)
 “Continuum of difference” – some women are taller, faster, stronger and
better athletes than some men and vice versa
 Limitations of views
 Women's and men's bodies exist on continuum
 Most popular sports are organized around most extreme possibilities of men's’
bodies (i.e. height in basketball, balance in gymnastics)
 Celebration of “sport” that entails physical power and aggression
Term
vidualism vs. Individuality
Definition
Social forms transform as pulled closer to the institutional center
 Individuality – uniqueness of every person, based on personal style, creative
abilities, and actions
 Conducive to the community
 Individualism – social ideology that is expressed as an aggressive desire to be
on top of or to be seen as better than others.
 Destructive to the community
 Consumer / institutional life replaces individuality with distortion of
individualism
 Corrupt power of the center
 Proximity to center creates unhealthy aspects of sport
 Playing sports vs. Highly involved athletes
 Playing sports is beneficial while athletes exposed to dangerous risks
 Playing sports is on the margin and encourages individuality
 Athletes are at the center and pulled into individualism
Term
The Social Justice Model
Definition
 Fundamentally challenge / alter the values or power relations at the center
 Fights against oppressive / unjust aspects of ghettoization
 Recognizes that social critique and social oppositions can be made from the
margins
 Asks the crucial question “Just do what?”
 Institutional responses
 Women’s Sports Foundation
 Activism around sexual harassment, lesbian and homophobia issues
 Women’s National Basketball Association
 Adapted rules, gender marked, less pay and media exposure
 Community relations and marketing strategy
 i.e. Breast cancer awareness night, community organizations
Term
Instability of the center
Definition
 1. problems –particularly off-field violence –generated by men’s
athletic culture
 2. destabilizing influence of institutions such as schools, universities
and the law which often have different goals and core value
systems from those at the center
 3. continued challenges from the margins of sport by girls and
women pressing for equity and fairness.
Term
The social control and deficit reduc:on dream
Definition
 Most dominant discourse– sports can constrain and
construc:vely socialize young people
 Corresponds with youth who have been framed as
“problems” or “threats”
 Sports offers opportunity to escape bad
environments and increase chances of future
produc:vity in society (keep them off the street
dream).
 Increase self‐esteem and “pull yourself up by your
bootstraps” mentality
Term
Second dream: Social Opportunity and Privilege Promotion
Definition
 Sport is used to expand opportunity and build leadership
and other necessary adult skills
 Focus is on building up strengths rather than on reducing
deficits (as in dream 1).
 Focus on taking advantage of already present privilege
 Sports is seen as a microcosm of broader world – in which
personal work ethic, compe::on and confidence are
important
 Sports prepares one for the world as well as opening
doors of opportunity to be successful
Term
Illusions of dreams
Definition
 No focus on social jus:ce or community rebuilding
 Focus is on policing youth (social control dream)
 World is right as it is (social opportunity dream)
Term
Management philosophies
Definition
‐ Strategic planning
 Males hold senior posi:ons and make the decisions
 Dominant structure in sports organiza:ons
 Focuses on top‐down direc:on
‐ Community development
 Non‐direc:ve empowerment
Term
Effect on the advancement of women
Definition
‐ Marginaliza:on by exis:ng management
 Lack of advancement opportuni:es
 Exclusion from decision making processes
 Overall inconsidera:on of gender equity
Term
Poten:al contribu:ons from women
Definition
‐ Capacity to balance tensions between
management and community development
‐ Provide focus and priori:es
Term
Patriarchal Bureaucracy
Definition
The Reality
‐ Organiza:ons do not realize their established policies
created by males for males inherently limits contribu:ons
from women
‐ The execu:ve posi:ons are guarded from women by the
exis:ng male patronage
‐ Many sports organiza:ons will not accept gender inequity as
their problem
‐ Recognize that changes in one country may not work in other
countries due to cultural differences
‐ Sport currently is behind all other aspects of culture and
society in terms of gender equity
Term
The Media Image of the Female Athlete
Video Components
Definition
• Female athletics and athletes, because they demonstrate so clearly the physical
strength, power and capability of women, pose a threat to definitions of
masculinity that depend on difference from women, specifically definitions that
depend on the exclusion of women and stereotypically feminine values.
• While female athletics and athletes threaten to undermine the traditional equation
of sport and manhood, media coverage of women’s sport has worked to reinforce
traditional stereotypes of both femininity and masculinity.
Term
Taking the Field: The Impact of Title IX
Definition
• Title IX changed the very culture of female athletics by putting to rest traditional
questions about the appropriateness of girls and women playing sports.
• As Mary Jo Kane puts it, “In one generation we’ve gone from girls hoping that
there is a team, to hoping that they make the team.”
• While Title IX has had the effect of increasing participation over the past three
decades and, over time, the level of competition in women’s sports, an entirely
separate issue concerns how these changes, and the nature of female athletics,
have been presented and represented in media.
Term
Out of Uniform: The Media Backlash against Female Athletes
Definition
• Analysis of the major sports channels, and of sports coverage generally, reveal
that women’s sports are severely under-represented despite the growth in
women’s college and professional sports programs, and in the participation of
girls and young women in sports generally.
• This persistent tendency to sexualize, trivialize and marginalize physically strong,
athletic women has the effect of undermining the power of female athletes, and
works to contain the threat this power poses to traditional equations of manhood
and masculinity with sport.
• These inherent biases in media coverage of women’s sports reflect profound
cultural anxieties about changing definitions of femininity and masculinity.
Term
Empowerment or Exploitation?
Definition
While media have continually represented women athletes in sexualized or other
trivializing ways that have little or nothing to do with their athletic ability or
accomplishments, the fact is that a number of women athletes have regularly and
willingly chosen to be represented in these ways.
• A number of female athletes have argued that such representations have less to do
with their disempowerment as athletes than their empowerment as individuals:
that they gain power by expressing their individuality as women, their femininity,
their sexuality, at the same time winning both publicity for their sport and
economic power through promotional deals.
• This focus on women athletes as hypersexual, or hyper-feminine, needs also to be
considered alongside the overall dearth of coverage of women’s sports, and the
relative absence of coverage of women athletes as athletes first. When valuable
ideals like individual empowerment and expression circulate within so limited a
frame, the risk is that women’s sports get devalued – even as the very gender
stereotypes that made Title IX necessary in the first place get valued.
Term
Homophobia in Sport and Sports Media
Definition
• Because female athletes challenge traditional notions of femininity, because their
abilities are seen as traditionally and stereotypically “masculine,” female athletes
and women’s athletics must contend always with homophobia.
• Women’s sports organizations and women athletes have been forced to
consciously present themselves as heterosexual and as unthreatening to family
values in order to remain socially acceptable and economically viable.
• The consequent fear of media scrutiny in turn has led women’s sports promoters
to emphasize the wholesome, family-friendly nature of their teams; led female
athletes to clearly mark and market themselves as heterosexual, and led to lesbian
athletes to stay in the closet.
• This homophobic dynamic is especially paradoxical, and presents special
challenges to sports ownership, given the large lesbian fan base of women’s
professional sports.
Term
Women Athletes In Action
Definition
Sports culture in the United States, because it is so inherently gendered, so
traditionally a masculine arena, is one of the most prominent places where gender
is defined and taught.
• While in the wider culture women’s increased power has challenged traditional
gender dichotomies, the world of sports media lags far behind.
• Sports media do cultural work, actively constructing for millions of boys and
young men what it means to be a man, to be masculine, and therefore what it
means to be a woman, to be feminine.
• As long as sports coverage and those who produce it rely on outmoded
stereotypes of femininity and masculinity, as long as they work to appease the
anxieties that always attend change, they will continue to perpetuate the myth that
female sports are somehow less exciting than male sports.
Term
Labeling the Issues
Definition
 Labels are used to control women in sports
 Hate drives the use of these labels
 Fear makes these labels effective
Term
Fitting In
Definition
 Women in sport must appear “heterosexy”
 Women must flaunt their femininity
 Women are encouraged to discuss their “normal” life
 Women must avoid being labeled
Term
Codification of Desire
Definition
› Within sports institutions, regulates the ways
bodies may connect with each other.
Term
Hegemonic Masculinity
Definition
- Cultural ideology
promotes an ideal of “normal” male behavior that
places some men in a position of dominance over
other men and all women.
Term
Marginalized Masculinity
Definition
The notion that some
male behaviors are disgraceful and those
displaying such behaviors are lower class that
can be denied power and prestige.
Term
 Stigmatize
Definition
To characterize or brand as
disgraceful or embarrassing
Term
Characteristics of the Media
Definition
The media connects us with information,
experiences, images, ideas, and people from around
the world.
The media at times gives us a “re-presented” version
of the truth based on the goals of the media and in
turn presents us with what the New York Times
called “sportainment.”
The decision makers in the media act as filters, and
present images and text that is consistent with the
current dominant ideologies in society.
The media in the US emphasizes on competition,
aggression, hard work, heroism, achievement,
playing with pain, teamwork, and competitive
outcomes.
Term
Typical Goals of the Media
Definition
To Make Profits.
To Shape Values.
To Provide a public
service.
To Build their own
reputations.
To Express themselves
in a technical, artistic, or
personal way.
Term
Sport Depends on the Media
Definition
Sports depend on the media for commercial success.
Commercial sports depend on the media to provide a
combination of coverage and news.
Media provides knowledge and discussions about sports, which
increases interest, and generates large revenues.
Commercial sports depend greatly on television for revenues in
the form of TV rights and licensing fees.
Billions of dollars of revenue for sports are generated each year
through television.
Athletes and CEO’s depend on increased revenues for higher
salaries.
The goal of television is to turn the world into an audience that
can be sold to sponsors
Term
Mediated
Definition
Sports are re-presented to audiences
through selected images and/or narratives
Term
Homosexuality and the Media
Definition
 Lesbian relationships are ignored for fear of
offending media audiences
 Gay athletes are assumed not to exist
 We live in a heterosexual dominated culture
so it is harder for an athlete to say they are
homosexual
 Homosexuality is not seen as normal in the
media
Term
Misogyny
-Sexualization‐
Definition
a hatred of women
-a term that implicitly denies the sexuality
inherent in the athletic performance and the athletic body
upon which that performance is inscribed.
Term
 Contextualism‐
 Voyeurism
Definition
 Contextualism‐ the philosophy that an action, utterance,
or expression can only be understood relative to that
context
 Voyeurism‐ the sexual interest in or practice of spying on
people engaged in intimate behaviors, such as undressing,
sexual activity, or other activity usually considered to be of
a private nature
Term
“The Black Experience”
Definition
provided the basis for new
politics of resistance and critique of the way black
people were positioned as ‘other’, irrespective of their
different histories, traditions and identities
Term
Feminism and sport
Definition
 First wave of feminism didn’t use ‘difference’ but
they observed divisions between class, gender roles,
and rights
 Second wave of feminism used the term to describe
inequalities and disadvantages that women
experience as compared to men
 Third wave of feminism the term difference refers to
the differences between women, rather than
between two genders
Term
Feminism and sport
Definition
 Difference is based on experiences or
postmodernist thought
 Experiences- seen as a way of challenging women’s
previous silence about their conditions and
confronting dominant males with knowledge and
comprehension
 Postmodernist thought- “emphasizes fragmentation,
deconstruction, and the idea of multiple
selves” (Maynard)
Term
dangers of differences
Definition
 Criticism of experience approach: “us” and “them”
connotation
 Endless possibilities for diversity that cannot be
lumped together
 Tends to emphasize differences between women
that they might have in common
 “Detracts from our ability to consider relationships
between things and the possible consequences in
terms of domination and control” (Maynard)
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