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-Golden Mean
-Virtue ethics – virtue lies between two extremes
-Moral agent/person emphasized |
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-Categorical Imperatives
-Universally acceptable standards, regardless of situation
-Act/action emphasized
-Remember: You Kant break the rules |
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-Utilitarianism
-Greatest good for greatest number, not quantitatively, but qualitatively -Consequence/outcome emphasized
-Remember: mill = power source = utility company = utilitarianism |
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-Competing ethical duties -Appreciate situation without losing sight of rules (prima facie and duty proper)
-Context emphasized
-Remember -- Ross Wilson = wishy-washy, about context (gray area) |
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-Communitarianism
-Shared responsibilities; focuses on the sum of the outcome on society -Individuals/audiences emphasized |
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| found through practical reasoning (know what youre doing), applying/acting on high standards, and should emerge from strong character traits |
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| the duty you select in a given situation |
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| ethic of justice; objectivity, independence/autonomy, fairness, duty, and obligation emphasized. Often men operate on ethic of justice |
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ethic of care; mutuality, interdependence, relationships, cooperation, social bonds, and sympathy emphasized. Often women operate on ethic of care.
Remember: Jillian = ethics of care kind of girl |
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| Kohlberg's categories (with 2 stages in each) |
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Definition
1-pre-conventional – obey to avoid punishment, get what you want even if by manipulation or lying. Mostly young children and immature ppl. Very self-centered. Deflecting blame “dog ate my hwk,” “I didn’t take any cookies from the cookie jar”, etc
2-conventional – conform to meet expectations, respect authority, doing your duty because the rules say so, not out of fear.
3-post-conventional – laws protect greater good, but some values override. Do what’s right bc it’s right, not bc laws say so. Think of civil disobedience, ppl like King, gandi, Mother Theresa. For the greater good. “The measure of a man’s character is what he would do if he knew he never would be found out.” |
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| Gilligan's interpersonal contexts |
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Stage 1 – self-protection to avoid harm, fear is the driving factor. Still very self-centered
Stage 2 – responsibility/social participation. Self-sacrifice to care for others. The right thing to do is to take care of everybody else.
Stage 3 – a balance between Stages 1 and 2. Emphasizes interdependence. Makes sure decisions mutually beneficial (for myself and others). |
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| awareness of possible lines of action, and of how our actions might affect other people |
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| the ability to use moral reasoning to determine what behaviors are morally justifiable |
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| the desire to prioritize moral values over competing values |
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| having the courage and ego strength to do the right thing, despite the costs and difficulties in doing so |
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Fidelity
Reparation
Gratitude
Justice
Beneficence
Self-improvement
Not injuring others
(Veracity)
(Nurture) |
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| those duties that seem to be right because of the nature of the act itself |
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| 6 criteria for ethical law-breaking in journalism |
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Definition
-When the information sought is of profound importance. It must be of vital public interest.
When all other alternatives for obtaining the same information have been vigorously examined and exhausted.
-When the journalists involved are willing to fully disclose their methods and the reasons for such actions, including any violations of law.
-When the journalists/news org employ commitment and the time and funding needed to pursue the story fully and fairly.
-When the journalists involved have conducted a deliberative decision-making process on the ethical/legal issues and weighed the consequences to all stakeholders.
-When the journalists/news orgs are willing to accept and justify the consequences that can occur if they are charged with violating the law.
I-mportance
D-isclosure
C-ommitment
D-eliberate
A-cceptance (of consequences) |
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| The Potter Box (define process) |
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Definition
1-define situation/dilemma - as more info comes, adjust this step (bc other steps rely on it)
2-Identify the values - and beliefs that define what you stand for.
3-id the principles - Use moral philosophy , advice drawn from
the wisdom of the ages. The ethical principles, as laid down by philosophers, should illuminate the issues.
4-choose your loyalties - To whom are you ultimately loyal, and to whom,
at intermediate steps, are you loyal? You may have competing loyalties |
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1-specialized knowledge base (with training, accrediting, licensing, for ex.) 2-public service over self service 3-broad autonomy 4-self regulation -- incl. enforceable ethics codes 5-associations 6-status
Remember: Special public broads, self-associate with status |
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| Bok's model for decision making |
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-based on 2 premises: empathy for ppl involved in ethical decisions and maintaining social trust is a fundamental goal. Her 3 step process:
1)consult conscience about "rightness of action". How do you feel about it?
2)seek expert advice for alternatives to the act creating the ethical problem
3)conduct public discussion with parties involved in dispute |
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| basically works like this: imagine that societal roles were completely re-fashioned and redistributed, and that from behind the veil of ignorance, one does not know what role they will be reassigned. Only then can one truly consider the morality of an issue |
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-loyalty=social contract
-but loyalty has limits, and often conflicts with other loyalty |
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| Royce on loyalty; pros and cons |
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-believed loyalty was the single guiding ethical principle
-like Hobbes, saw it as a social act, and one that could be learned and honed
-cause worthy of loyalty if it fits with loyalties of others within the community
-said the 'ills of mankind.. due to disloyalty not wrongheaded loyalty"
Pros:
-emphasizes developing ethical habits
-loyalty=social so reqs we put others on equal footing w/ us
-**emphasizes considering your loyalties and how you arrived at them when making ethical choices
Cons:
-loyalty can be thinly-cloaked bias or prejudice
-loyalties compete, rarely does one have a single loyalty
-what about loyalty to unethical cause |
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| situation ethics vs. ethical relativism |
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Definition
ethical relativism -- theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one's culture. That is, whether an action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. There are no universal moral standards.
-situation ethics -- decision-making should be based upon the circumstances of a particular situation, and not upon fixed law |
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| Is the discipline you plan to work in a profession? |
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| legal test, cost-benefit test, categorical imperative test (would it be okay if everyone did it?), light of day test (what would be choice/reaction if action were brought into light for everyone to see/scrutinize), ventilation tests (air it out --ask others you trust, do they agree with choice? if so, passes) |
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| How each professional society deals w/ truth |
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Definition
-AAF (American Advertising Federation) – ads shall tell the truth
-SND (Society for News Design ) – our work will be free from fraud and deception, should be honest
-NPPA (National Press Photographers Association) – strive for pics that report truthfully
-PRSA – we adhere to the highest stds of accuracy and truth
-SPJ – seek truth and report it |
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Definition
-ancient Greeks – history was oral, so truth was handed down through stories and memories. Leaves truth open to subjectivity.
-Plato – abides in world of perfect forms, captured the best we can only through intellect. Rationality. Truth, not truth, is nearly impossible to attain. Even though we cant get all that is true, we should work very hard to get there.
-Medieval – truth is what the king, Church, and God said.
-Milton – truth emerges from marketplace of ideas, where all speech has some value and all voices are heard. Considered heretical at the time.
-marketplace of ideas:
-Even if individual voices are incorrect, the truth will emerge.
-Incorrectness often sheds light on truth, reinforce value of truth
-Rational ppl can ID what’s true.
-But there are also consequences for falsehoods.
-truth changes over time, what’s true now may be disproved later
-there is value in rigorous debate
-Enlightenment – truth is verifiable, replicable, universal. Very objective, opposite of Milton.
-Pragmatists – truth about: Framing – how we choose to view reality; a way to organize perspective. Tells you what to focus on. Pure science doesn’t take into account human fallibility. Essentially to do the best you can do.
-Postmodern – truth is just the meaning we assign to beliefs. ‘Meaning cannot exist apart from context.’ |
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Term
| Describe the truth continuom |
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Definition
Inform fully (no apparent bias)
Persuade (think TV ads)
Non-truth, no attempt to decieve (fables, tall tales, typos, mistakes, etc)
Deception -- regardless if "justified" or not (ex. 'Astroturfing' or fake grassroots support)
Lying straight up |
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Term
| how the different mass comm areas can be transparent |
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Definition
Media -- reveal methods of info gathering, run corrections
PR -- Disclose conflicts of interest to clients, disclose side effects (ex. pharm drugs), correct any erroneous information
Visual comm -- disclose composites, visual alterations, make corrections |
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| Lying by commission vs lying by omission |
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Definition
commission -- intentional falsehood
omission -- Truthful statement as far as it goes. Intentionally deceitful because key info left out. BUT just because only one side expressed doesn't mean it's a lie by omission -- has to deceive or intend to decieve |
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| standards of news objectivity |
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Definition
-Honest, accurate reporting
-Multiple viewpoints (avoid polarizing)
-Varied sources
-‘Afflict the comfortable’ |
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Does it create passive reporters? Ex Red Scare – journos reported what was happening, no one challenging McCarthy until Edward R Murrow finally
Is separation from society appropriate? Or should we acknowledge place in society and approach news with that in mind – but also be open to changing opinion/dropping bias
Can complete neutrality be achieved?
Are there only two sides to an issue? there are usually more than 2 sides to an issue
Where does analysis enter into the picture? |
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| Examples of using value-laden terms |
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Definition
-terrorist or separatist group
-global warming or climate change
-gay marriage vs same-sex marriage, gay or homosexual
-illegal immigrant or undocumented immigrant, etc |
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USE AS PROCESS TO CREATE ADS
-Truthfulness – is the info accurate, does it leave info out and if so is it deceptive?
-Authenticity – of the persuader, is ad sincere? Do the right thing with the right attitude. Sincerity. Would the reasons given for making a purchase also motivate the person who developed/wrote the ad? MOTIVATION
-Respect – Respect for person receiving the message. Is ad respectful? Does it pass Mom/Grandma test? (light of day test)
-Equity – of the persuasive appeal, is everyone on level playing field
-Socially responsible -- for the common good
-Step 6: does the ad pass this test? |
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| Ethically questionable ad themes |
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Definition
-Magic bullet -- edia broadcasts directly shape the opinions and actions of viewers. According to this theory, information is "fired" or "injected" directly into the viewer, and then guides their actions.
Cognitive balance and dissonance -- advertising creates an imbalance for consumers and then promises to re-balance. Ex.: Dandruff makes you a social outcast and Head & Shoulders can correct the problem/you’ll be socially accepted again.
"Buyer beware" -- scare em into it |
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| internal investigator of concerns, complaints |
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