1. Made up of cells

2. need energy

3. repsond to the environment

4. can reproduce

5. Grow and develop

6. Contain genetic info

1. Biologists study many different systems

2. Structure and function are closely related

3. Homeostasis

4. Biodiversity is the result of evolution

1. Observe

2. Question

3. Hypothesize

4. Test

5. Conclude

Light: 2 lenses, max 1500x, living samples, 2D

Disscting: living samples, 3D, 200-400x

TEM: internal, 2D, non-living

SEM: external, 3D, non-living

1. pure substance, not easily broken down

2. all atoms have same # of protons

1. Ionic: oppositely charged ions attract eachother, weak

2. Molecule: covalent bonds, share electrons, must share same amount, can share up to 3 pairs, strong

Monomer: monosaccharide

Polymer: di/polysaccharides

Function: provide energy, structure for plant cells

Examples: glucose, fructose, lactose, sucrose, cellulose

Special: 1:2:1 C,H,O

Monomer: Fatty Acid

Polymer: triglyceride, phospholipid

Function: long term energy, cell membranes

Examples: oil, fat, wax, cholesterol

Special: non-polar=do not dissolve in water

Saturated=full of hydrogens, unhealthy, pack better

unsaturated=not full, healthier, bent/cannot pack well

Monomer: Amino acids

Polymer: Polypeptides

Function: (see examples) 

Examples: hemoglobin, hair, muscles, antibodies, enzymes

Special: Function is directly related to shape

Speed up chemical reactions, "lock and key", re-used for same substrate

Function: stores genetic information

Examples: RNA and DNA

Hooke: looked at cork, saw dead cell walls, used name "cell"

1. All living things are made up of cells.

2. All cells come from other cells.

3. Cells are the basic unit of life.

Pro = no nucleus, bacteria, no membrane bound organelles, simple, uni cellular

Eu = nucleus, losts of organelles, uni or multi cellular

1. No energy needed

2. high to low

3. Types: diffusion, osmosis

1. High to low

2. Stops when equilibrium is reached

3. Can easily cross lipid bylayer: gases, non-polar

1. Diffusion of water

2. must be free water

3. Crosses via Aquaporins

1. equal concentrations of free water in and out of cell.

2. NO osmosis

1. Higher concentration of solutes OUTSIDE cell.

2. Water leaves, cell shrinks

3. Plasmolysis

1. More free water OUTSIDE cell

2. water moves in

3. Cell expands or bursts, cytolysis

1. uses proteins to help substances cross the membrane

2. No energy used

3. Two types of proteins: channel, transport

1. Uses energy

2. Low to high: must use protein pump

3. Bulk (exocytosis, endocytosis)

1. Occurs in thylakoid

2. Need H2O, light

3. Produce: O2, ATP, NADPH

1. Light absorbed by pigment

2. Energized electron passed down ETC

3. Lost energy used to pump H+ into thylakoid

4. Lost e- replaced by H2O

5. Light energizes electron in pigment

6. Move down second ETC

7. Picked up by NADP+ and H+ = NADPH

8. H+ builds up and then rushes out (ATP Synthase)

9. Energy used to add P to ADP = ATP

1. e- goes to chlorophyll

2. Oxygen is waste

3. H+ stays in thylakoid

A.K.A: Calvin cycle

Needs: ATP and NADPH from Light Dependent

CO2 from atmosphere

Produces: Glucose

1. Breakdown of glucose to produce ATP

Needs: Oxygen and Glucose

Produces: CO2, H2O, and ATP

1. In Cytoplasm

2. anaerobic = does not use oxygen

3. Glucose broken down to 2 pyruvate and 2 ATP + NADH

1. Occurs in mitochondria

2. Parts: Krebs cycle and ETC

1. uses pyruvate

2. Occurs within inner membrane

3. Produces: CO2, 2 ATP, NADH, FADH2

1. Occurs IN inner membrane

2. High energy e- provided by NADH and FADH2

3. e- move down ETC

4. lost energy used to pump hydrogen out of the matrix into inter membrane space

5. Hydrogen rushes bak in through ATP synthase

6. O2 frm atmosphere picks up e- from ETC, combines with hydrogen to make H2O

1. Fermentation

2. uses pyruvate from glycolysis

3. occurs in cytoplasm

4. Produces 0 ATP

5. Uses NADH from glycolysis to make NAD+ and keep glycolysis going

6. Two types:

Alcohol: yeast, bacteria

Lactic Acid: muscle cells, some microorganisms

Interphase: G1, S, G2

M Phase: cell division = mitosis + cytokinesis

1. limited by surface area/volume ratio.

2. Volume increases faster

3. If cell gets too big nutrients/waste can't cross membrane efficiently enough.

4. Reason cells dvide.

Division of nucleus.

Stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.

1. Chromatin coils to form chromosomes

2. Nuclear membrane breaks, dissapears

3. Centrioles move to opposite ends of cell

4. spindle fibers attach to centromere and centrioles.

Chromosomes are pulled apart at the centromere and start to move toward the centrioles

*single chromatids are now called chromosomes*

1. Chromosomes are clustered at ends of cells and unravel

2. Nuclear membrane reforms

3. Spindle fibers dissapear

4. Cytokinesis starts

uncontrolled cell growth.

prblematic because: take resources from healthy cells, take critical space, don't do normal funtions.

External: cell contact, growth factors (proteins that stimulate cells to grow)

Internal: proteins stimlate cell growth, telomeres cause chromosomes to stick together, cannot divide anymore.

Apoptosis: programmed cell death

1. Not affected by cell contact

2. Grow without growth factors

3. immortal (telomeres don't shorten)

Benign: don't spread

Malignant: spread or metasticize

Radiation: high energy, kills cells, *directed

Chemotherapy: toxin targets fast growing cells, side effects nausea and hair loss, *systemic

Undifferentiated. develop into specialized cells. keep renewing themselves.

Found: embryo, bone marrow

Pairs of chromosomes that have the same structure and contain the same genes.

One is from mother, one is from father.

autosomes: regular, non sex

Sex chromosomes: determine gender

1. divides diploid into haploid

2. produces gametes

3. DNA is compied once, divides twice.

P1: Homologous chromosomes pair up, crossing over

M1: Homologous pairs line up

A1: Pairs seperate

T1: like mitosis (uncoiling, membrane forms)

Basically Mitosis

1. Astrian Monk - 1800s

2. Bred Pea Plants

3. used math to analyze results

4. no knowledge of genes/chromosomes

1. used purebred pea plants

2. observed 7 "either-or" traits

3. controlled the breeding

1. Law of Independent Assortment: Each trait is controlled by two distinct units (alleles) - one from each parent

2. If alleles are different one is expressed and one if hidden

3. Law of Segregation: each sex cell carries one allele for each gene, during meiosis the two alleles for every gene seperate.

BB=homozygous dominant

Bb=heterozygous

bb=homozygous recessive

genotype = combination of alleles

phenotype = appearance or expression of the trait

Phenotypic: dom:rec

Genotypic: BB:Bb:bb

Used to determine the unknown genotype of a dominant phenotype.

1. mate unknown with homozygous recessive

2. If one recessive phenotype, the unknown was heterozygous

1. gene is on the X chromosome

2. Males more likely to have because with only one x if they have the allele they WILL have the trait.

3. males CANNOT be carriers.

Pedigree:

Dom v. Rec

Autosomal v. Sex Linked

If dominant: no carriers, at least one parent must show

If Sex-linked: No male Carriers, mostly males affected

lack of a blood clotting protein

recessive, sex-linked

limited pigment in skin, eyes, hair

Autosomal, recessive

Symptoms: late in life, emotions, cognition, movement

Dominant, autosomal

Autosomal, codominant

1 defective gene = protection from malaria

2 defective genes = sickle cell

Autosomal, recessive

deterioration of mental and physical abilities YOUNG

Autosomal, Recessive

Thick mucus blocks digestion and repsiration

Form of dwarfism

Autosomal, Dominant (can be spontaneous mutation)

Autosomal, dominant

Tall, thin, disproportionate bodies. Weakened aorta

Codominant = boh alleles expressed

Incomplete = Blending/mixing of traits

Deoxyribose (house)

Phosphate (Chimney)

Nitrogen Base (Mailbox)

Bases are: Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine, Adenine

Pyrimadine = 1 ring = Thymine and Cytosine

Purine = double ring = Adenine and Guanine

Proportions of nitrogen bases is different for every organism.

Percent of A = Percent of T

Percent of C = Percent of G

1. Used x-ray defraction to analyse DNA

2. Results: DNA is a two stranded helix with constant width

DNA is Double Helix

Must have purine + pyrimidine to = 3 rings

Antiparallel = go in opposite directions

1. necessary for cell division

2. occurs during S phase

1. DNA helicase breaks weak hydrogen bonds and seperates trands

2. free floaing nucleotides are attached to complementary nucleotides on each side of DNA. (DNA Polymerase - also proofreads)

3. DNA Ligase attaches newly formed DNA segments to eachother

Result: 2 identical strands of DNA each with an old and new part.

=ribonucleic acid

1. one strand

2. ribose is sugar

3. uracil rather than thymine

1. RNA Polymerase binds to promoter

2. RNA Polymerase breaks hydrogen bonds to open DNA

3. "  " adds complementary RNA nucleotides to one side of DNA

4. complete RNA strand detaches and DNA zips back up

5. RNA leaves nucleus through nuclear pores

mRNA = messenger, carries instructions of DNA

tRNA = transfer, carries specific amino acids

rRNA = along with protein makes up the ribosome

each group of three nucleotides on mRNA

AUG is start codon

each codes for one amino acid

happens in cytoplasm

1. Ribosome attaches to mRNA

2. First tRNA carrying methionine attaches to mRNA (match up codom anticodon)

3. Second tRNA with its amino acid attaches to mRNA

4. Peptide bond forms between two amino acids

5. first tRNA releases and exits

6. ribosome moves ahead one codon

7. Continues until stop codon is reached

ex. Lac Operon in bacteria

1. promoter = attaches RNA polymerase, "start here!"

2. operator = turns gene on or off by attaching repressor

3. genes

1. Caused by mutagen

Types:

insertion and deletion = frameshift

substitution

chromosome mutation = whole pieces of chromosomes

Linnaeus: grouped organisms based on similar appearances

Buffon: organisms must share common ancestors

Erasmus Darwin: all organisms have a common ancestor, change less complex→more complex

Lamarck: use it or lose it, changes passed to offspring

Catastrophism: natural disasters change earth, could cause pop. to go extinct

Gradualism (hutton): earth changes in gradual manner

Uniformitarianism: (hutton and lyell) slow change occurs at constant rate

1. Voyage on HMS beagle, naturalist

2. Observed: marine fossils on mountains, giant extinct fossils similar to modern organisms, variation

3. Species must be able to adapt to their specific environment: adaptation

Influenced By: Malthus, Artificial Selection

1. Variation within a species

2. Overproduction of offspring

3. Some organisms in population have favorable traits

4. Beneficial traits are passed to offspring

5. Eventually more and more organisms express desired trait

1. Fossils.

2. Georgraphy (proximity leads to similarity)

3. Embryology

4. Anatomy (homologous, analogous, vestigial)

5. Molecular and Genetic similarities

Directional: One extreme is favored

Stabilizing: Average is selected for

Disruptive: two extremes favored, new species results eventually.

p²+2pq+q²=1

p=dominant allele

q=recessive allele

1. ~4.6 billion years old

2. formed from cloud of gas and dust called nebula

3. conditions: hot, dark, toxic gases, cloudy

1. Miller and Urey = primordial soup, lightning broke apart inorg. molecules to form org. molecules

2. meteorites deposited organic compounds on earth

=3.8 billion years ago

1. Hydrothermal vents or ice held compounds together

2. Structure: liposome, RNA, ribozymes (enzyme-like pieces of RNA)

1. Anaerobic

2. Heterotrophic (used organic compounds for energy)

3. asexual

1. cyanobacteria

2. stromatolites: colonies of cyanobacteria

3. released oxygen

1. allowed evolution of aerobic organisms

2. fromed ozone layer = protection from UV rays

1. endosymbiosis: larger engulfs smaller, probably created chloroplasts and mitochondria

2. membrane forms around genetic info

Where: eastern africa (ethiopia)

Why: plates collide, create mountains which lead to drier africa, movement through trees less beneficial

What: Bipedality, short arms/long legs, brains increase in size, thumbs opposable

1. bowl-shaped pelvis

2. legs bend in at knee

3. backbone s-shaped

4. backbone connects to skull underneath

1. 4.4 million years ago

2. tree dwelling AND walked upright

1. Lucy

2. Oldest most complete biped skeleton (3.2 million years old)

1. too specialized to adapt

2. made to chew (teeth, jaws, muscles)

1. first to make tools

2. scavengers, tools to get marrow/scrape meat

3. oldest homo

"working man"

1. migrated to asia/europe

2. taller, leaner

3. first hunters

"Upright man"

1. bamboo tools

2. dead end evolutionarily

"cave men"

1. short, stocky, muscular

2. buried dead

3. had abstract thinking

"wise man"

creativity + imagination = problem solving

biotic = living affecting other living

abiotic = non-living affecting living

1. transfer of energy

2. # of species

3. biomass

1. Water (evaporation/transporation and precipitation)

2. Nitrogen (nitrogen fixation and denitrification)

3. Oxygen-carbon cycle (combustion/cellular respiration/decomposition and photosynthesis)

1. intraspecific *greater* (food, women, space)

2. interspecific (space, food) = exclusion or share resources

1. r-strategists: many offspring, little to no care

2. k-strategists: few offspring, sure to make it

1. pioneer species (moss)

2. Seral communities (grass and wildflowers →shrubs → small trees) change and grow quickly

3. Climax community: stable, can reproduce long term, slow growing

Characteristics: are non-living, can only reproduce within host cell, tiny, simple

Structure: RNA or DNA, capsid, receptors

Shapes: polyhedral (many geometric sides), enveloped (surrounded with a membrane), helical (spiral)

Examples: chicken pox, herpes, polio, aids, flu

Lytic: attachment (to host cell), entry (of genetic info), replication (of viral parts), assembly (of viral parts), release (of new viruses)

Lysogenic: attachment, entry, insertion (of prophage into host cell's DNA)...eventually finishes lytic cycle

Characteristics: small, prokaryotic, occupy two domains, unicellular

Types: obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative aerobes

Shapes: Bacilli (rod shaped), Spirilla (spiral), Cocci (spherical)

1. a large circular chromosome

2. plasmid = small loops of DNA

3. Flagella

4. ribosomes

5. pili (for attachment)

6. Cell wall

7. endospores (protected from harsh environments)

1. gram positive = purple, thick cell wall, no external membrane, good

2. Gram negative = pink, have extra membrane outside cell wall, bad

1. Binary Fission = copy DNA and slit in two

2. conjugation = copy plasmid and transfer across pili bridge to another bacterium

1. first eukaryotes

2. hugely divers

3. Groups: protozoans, algae, fungus-like

1. Heterotrophic

2. Unicellular

Types:

1. with flagella "zooflagellates" - for movement

2. with pseudopods - movement, endocytosis feeding

3. with cilia - movement, feeding (beat cilia)

1. autotrophic

2. uni and multi cellular

3. first multicellular

Types:

1. dinoflagellates: uni, bioluminescent, red tide

2. diatoms: uni, glossy shells

3. green algae: uni and multi, became plants

4. brown algae: multi, kelp and rock weed

5. Red algae: multi, grows in deep water

Characteristics: heterotrophic, eukarotic, multicellular, cell walls made of chitin.

Structure: hyphae (main part, long threadlike), mycelium (mass of hyphae), fruiting body (reproduction)

Reproduction: spores or budding

hyphae release digestive enzymes, break down organic matter, and absorb

Strategies:

1. saprophytic: dead matter

2. parasitic: eat living tissue

3. mutualistic: lichen or mycorrhizae (fungus and plant roots)

1. two cell layers

2. asymmetry

3. sessile as adults

4. filter feeders

ex-sponges

1. two cell layers

2. radial symmetry

3. one opening

4. nerve net

5. feed with: cnidocyte (stinging cells), nematocysts (barbe stingers)

ex - jellyfish, coral, sea anemone

1. first to have 3 cell layers

2. first to show cephalization

3. first to hunt

4. bilateral symmetry

5. acoelomate

ex - any flatworms

1. pseudocoelomates

2. first to have two opening digestive tract

3. very numerous

ex - any roundworms

1. first to have true coelom

2. protostomes

3. bilateral symmetry

4. soft bodies

Classes:

Gastropod: one shell, ex-conch, whelk, periwinkle

Bivalve: two shells, ex - muscles, clams

Cephalopod: ex - octopus, cuttlefish

1. segmented worms

2. first to show segmentation

3. coelom

4. protostomes

5. cilateral symmetry

ex - earthworms, leeches

1. largest phylum

2. exoskeleton, segmented bodies, jointed legs

Classes:

Crustaceans: 2 pairs antennae, 5 pairs legs (lobster, pill bug)

Arachnids: 4 pairs legs, 2 body segments (spider, lice, ticks)

Myriapods: lots of legs/segments (centi/millipede)

Insects: 6 pairs legs, 3 body segments (beetles, ants, butterflies

1. spiny skin

2. first to have endoskeleton

3. move using tube feet

4. radial symmetry, no cephalization

ex - starfish, sea cucumber, sea urchin, sand dollar

1. nerve chord

2. notochord

3. tail

4. gill slits

Two types:

-invertebrates (tunicate and lancelot)

-vertebrates

High Specific Heat (helps regulate body temp)

Cohesion (stick to other water molecules)

Adhesion (stick to other surfaces)

Good solvent

1. contains genetic information

2. double membrane with pores for info to come and go

3. Nucleolus: creates ribosomes

1. Made of proteins and RNA

2. Create proteins using Amino Acids

3. In cytoplasm = proteins stay in cell, if on ER = proteins leave cell

1. serious of interconnected membranes

2. Rough = has ribosomes, make proteins to be exported from cell

3. Smooth = looks tubular, makes lipids & detoxifies alcohol and drugs

1. Flattened and stacked non-connected membranes

2. modifies proteins and packages them in vesicles

1. small membrane sack used to store and transport proteins

2. made in the Golgi

1. sausage shaped

2. Two membranes: inner is highly folded

3. Produces energy for cell (cellular respiration)

1. Fluid filled membrane sack (small in animals, large central in plants)

2. Storage (water, enzymes, waste)

3.

1. membrane sacks containing digestive enzymes

2. more prominent in animal cells

3. Break down food, damaged organelles, bacteria

4. made when vesicle with enzymes merges and does not leave cell.

1. In animal cells

2. cylinder shaped, made of protein tubes

3. used in cell division

4. always in perpendicular pairs

Plants, Bacteria and Fungi

1. Support

2. Outside of membrane, has pores

1. only in plants

2. two membranes surrounding stacks of membrane tissues

3. photosynthesis, makes glucose

Fluid Mosaic Model

1. phospholipids

2. cholesterol = structure and shape

3. proteins help substances cross

4. Carbohydrate chain = helps identify cell

Membrane is selectively permeable