Those with familial relations with the emperor

Part of the hierarchy of the daimyo

Well-regarded supporters of the Tokugawa at the Battle of Sekigahara (aka the winning battle of Warring States period)

Part of the hiearchy of the daimyo

Policy of alternate attendance introduced by Tokugawa Shogunate; every other year, samurai and daimyo must visit Edo

Financial burden for the daimyo, but it strengthens the shogunate's control of its vassals

Closed-door policy; seclusion

Matured over the course of early 1600s, culminating in the restriction of foreign interaction with Dutch in Nagasaki

Major factor was fear and expulsion of Christianity

Genroku Period

(1688-1744)

Tokugawa Tsunayoshi

r. 1680 -1709

Position as 5th Shogun is evident of the importance of paternal lineage; he is the son of a nun's servant and the last Shogun

Culturally inclined; turned away from martial values; lectured on Confucianism

Obsessed with the protection of all life (particularly dogs)

Rule of law over rule of reason (tenet of Neo-Confucianism)

Wrote about Samurai impoverishment; advocated their return to the countryside to live frugal lives as opposed to the excesses of city life

Favored the relaxation of sankin kotai

Wrote about sexytimes and wealth; evidence of the cultural significance of a rising merchant class, and their values in comparison with samurai ethics

Travelled Japan after losing his family and wrote realistic works; his work holds evidence of a growing commercial culture, e.g. shop of the Mitsui caters to samurai but doesn't accept credit

Chikamatsu Monzaemon

(1653-1724)

playwright for banraku and Kabuki; son of a merchant and prostitute

Wrote about social obligations (ninjo) vs. emotion (giri)

Giri: human emotions and feelings

Ninjo: social obligations

Shinju: dying together; common resolution between the two conflicts

Advisor to the 6th and 7th Shoguns; first Confucian scholar to attain great significance in Japanese politics

Economized cost of entertaining Korean embassies, the cost of which outweighed the benefits (they doubted Confucianism)

Restricted foreign trade to promote self-sufficiency and retain national wealth in precious metals

Kyoho Reform

(1716-1745)

Attempt to return to an idyllic past: frugal, martial, rural samurai (fundamentalist vs. realistic)

Temporary relaxation of Sankin Kotai until 1730; samurai to pay 1/100th of income

Encouragement of land reclamation with taxation; merchants allowed to own and lease land

Jomen: annual assessments

Kemi: fixed tax rates for a 10-year period

Kemi was adopted during the Kyoho Reform; more efficiency and higher returns

Liberalization: study of Dutch encouraged; commoners allowed to write the Shogun

Stipends for officials of merit

Demonstration of military strength: procession to Nikko Shrine in 1728

Policy of Tokugawa Yoshimune

Codified law, with less severe punishments and less torture

Shared responsibility among family members, which lead to a trend of disowning and adoption

Jurisdiction is confused but important; hierarchy reigns as basis for crimes; sexist policies

part of the 100 Articles

Ginmisuji: criminal cases

Deirisuji: out-of-court cases, which were more encouraged

Dominant advisor from the 1770s to 1786

Favorite of Tokugawa Ieshige

Liberalization policies in international relations (trade with Russia and Dutch studies)

Popular opinion that he was corrupt; revisionist views however have rehabilitated him somewhat as a counsellor

Initiated the assimilation of Ezo

Great Famine of Tenmei

(1783-1787)

Devastating famine during the reign of the 10th Shogun

Tanuma Okitsugu received much blame, though his policies may not have been detrimental

present-day Hokkaido

Tanuma was interested in developing it to open more land and pursue trade with Russia

Assimilation of Hokkaido and displacing native Ainu until Shogunate assumed direct control in 1799

Population stagnation

Increased agricultural returns

Specialization for production of cash crops and luxury goods

Dutch learning

1720: Tokugawa Yoshimune allowed Dutch books and sponsorship of two scholars learning Dutch

Western medicial schools of thought in Japan: School of Southern Barbarians and School of Red Hairs

1771 dissection vindicates Western Medicine

Liberation from Sinocentric worldview; questioning value of Chinese characters

Western medical book translated into Japanese

lead to a rise in empiricism, astronomical calendar and geography

Part of ranguku movement

Rises in tandem with Rangaku

Opposes sinocentrism and Neo-Confucian precepts of hierarchy and order

Emphasis on Japanese classics such as Tale of Genji and Manyoshu

Raised questions as to the importance of the Emperor

Motoori Norinaga 

(1730-1801)

Lectured on Tale of Genji, argued that human nature is partially effeminate (contrary to predominant, masculine culture)

Argued the Kojiki (Japan's creation myth) was true

Major work Tamakushige

Motoori Norinaga's major work

Drew from the Kojiki in establishing the Imperial line as unbroken and semi-divine

Japan's exception & unique adherence to proper Buddhist way

Argued against the excessive stoicism in Neo-Confucian Japan

Two teachers of Kokugaku School

Advocated reverence of the Emperor commensurate with his theoretical status

Shikibu was banshed from Kyoto in 1759 and Daini was executed in 1767 

Matsudaira Sadanobu

(1758-1829)

Born into Tayasu, one of the three honorable branch families

Demonstrated competency, benevolence and leadership in the Tenmei Famine

Appointed to Roju (Elder) after Tamuma Okitsugu

Initiated the Kansei Reforms, which were so invasive that they led to his dismissal

Kansei Reform

(1787-1793)

Aimed at curtailing people's consumption and moneyspending

Moral policies (e.g. no mixed-gender baths) that interefered with everyday life

Confucian College in Edo limited to teachings of Zhu Xi

Samurai impoverishment; cancelled debts, limitations on interest of future debts

Abolition of merchant guilds

Institutions to rehab vagabonds and give them jobs

Famine relief funds

Japanese ships had a structural weakness that often produced castaways, which became sources of knowledge of the outside world

Kodayu was a castaway rescued by Russians; returned to Japan on Lt. Adam Laxman's ship, who requested trade relations with Japan

Wrote about tensions between Japan and foreign countries (Russians attacking northern Japanese outposts due to the seclusion policy)

First time that foreign problems had become an issue of importance

Believed it was foolish to risk invasion over negotiating a solution

Observed that Japanese samurai would be no match for Western soldiers due to their lack of military prowess & loyalty

English ship Phaeton arrived in Japan looking for Dutch ships to destroy

Dutch traders seized; neither the English nor Japanese had the military resources to start a battle

Incident made the Japanese government realize that the Dutch were not the only Euros with interests in Japan

Led to the study of Russian and English on top of Dutch in Japan; increased security of the Northern islands, the first point of contact for Europeans

Tokugawa Ienari

(1773-1841)

11th Shogun

Dealt with financial difficulties by debasing coins (again)

Cultural center of Japan moved from Osaka - Kyoto to Edo

Edo began as a modest fishing village full of immigrants; by the 19th century, Edokko (Edo locals) had formed a distinct culture

Spread of education and literacy

Temple schools provided education for the impoverished; open during less-demanding agricultural seasons

Increased emphasis on education fostered the development of the novel, literature and professional writers such as Santo Kyoden

Women banned from becoming actresses because most partook in prostitution; parts given to young males, but they were also prostitutes; finally parts given to adult men

Actors had a high income but low social status

Traditional oral storytelling; lectures on historical or literary topics originally given to high-ranking nobles but eventually spreading to samurai and commoners

Declined in popularity in the Edo period, replaced by new forms of entertainment

New aesthetic concepts during the Bunka-Bunsei period

Expression of simplicity, sophistication and originality; straightforward and not pretentious

poetry that created a democratic space in the rigid Tokugawa society; transcended class barriers as people from all classes were united in their common interest in poetry

Kobayashi Issa is an example of this: born into a poor peasant family but produced 20 000 poems and tried to become a professional haiku teacher

Great Famine of Tempo

(1830-1844)

Occurred towards the end of Ienari's reign; harvest yields at 2/3rds the regular amount

Led to the Revolt of Oshio Heihachiro in 1837

Minor official and famous Confucian scholar disgusted by corrupt officials and wealthy merchants hoarding rice during famines

Set fire to 40% of Osaka

Surgeon-Major in Dutch-Indian Army; visited Japan in 1823 during its seclusion period when trade with the Netherlands was less lucrative

Introduced new types of medical education to Japan

Gave lectures at the Academy at Narutaki

Located in Nagasaki; lectures by Philip Franz von Siebold

Accepted doctoral dissertations, geological specimens, plants, etc. from his students instead of tuition

Many Japanese in Edo with Dutch-like names; some could also speak broken Dutch phrases

Takahashi Kageyasu was a high-ranking scholar of Western studies

Takahashi Kageyasu supplied Siebold with maps of Japan, a severe crime for military secrecy reasons; arrested in 1828, jailed and executed posthumously

Siebold expelled from Japan in 1830; students and collaborators punished

Siebold's daughter by Japanese mistress, Kusumoto Ine, went on to become Japan's first female doctor

American ship harbouring 7 Japanese castaways came to Japan hoping to open trade relations and spread Christianity

"dont think twice" edict was applied; Japan's policy towards foreign ships was to simply turn them away

Morrison forced to return to a Chinese island; created tensions and concern over Japan's international PR

1791: inspect foreign ships, destroy them if they refuse

1806: supply fuel and provisions and send them away

"dont think twice" edict: send them away

Led a group of progressive scholars worried about implications of Japan's seclusion; included Takano Choei

Opposed by conservatives such as Torii Yozo

Disillusionment from Morrison affair and Japan's treatment of castaways led to Kazan's suicide in 1841

Observed that there was an convergence of internal and external struggles in Japan in the 1830's

Japanese samurai and military engineer; imported Western gunnery from Netherlands towards the end of seclusion

Early Japanese reformist, arguing for modernization to resist the West

Targeted by Torii Yozo for adopting Western ideas

Led by Mizuno Tadakuni of Karasu, Elder in the Shogunate

Caused by the Oshio revolt, foreign ships and financial difficulties

Modelled on previous reforms: emphasized frugality, invasive policies, sumptuary laws, limits on theatre and storytelling to classics, kemi taxation

Domain which accumulated debt of 23 years' worth of revenue in silver by 1840

Reform under Murata Seifu

Mercantile policies: domain monopoly of salt, cototn, rapeseed, etc. resisted by peasants; loans to ships

Liquidation of major debts by 1846

Domain which accumulated a debt of 5 million ryo (siginificantly greater than Choshu's debt)

Reform under Zusho Hirosato: unilteral cancellation of debts, han monopoly of sugar and cash crops

Secret trade with China

School of Japanese historical and Shinto studies

Compilation of Dai Nihon-shi (History of Great Japan)

Neo-Confucianist

Greatly influenced the sonno joi movement (restoration of Emperor's power)

Unique national policy; "sovereign", "national identity"

Proposed by Aizawa Seishisai and Mitogaku

Restoration of emperor's political power, based on Motoori Norinaga's arguments that the Emperor is truly descended from the Sun Goddess

Idealization of divinely-ruled ancient Japan

One of the earliest advocates of sonno joi; obedience to one's lord and adherence to Bakufu's laws

Wrote Shinron: chronicles rise and fall of the influence of Mito and lord Tokugawa Nariaki

New Proposals: bible for nationalistic patriots

Xenophobe, anti-Christian

King William II of Holland sent a letter in 1844 advising Shogun to change policy of seclusion, using China as an example of consequences of refusal

French ships in Ryukyu in 1844 and 1846

American inauguration of California increased interest in Japan

Top leader in Shogunate, invited daimyos to submit their opinions on the Western trade question

Rare occasion in which people outside of the Shogunate's admin were asked for their opinion on matters of state

Importance of Japanese navy realized

Alternate attendance policy relaxed in order to allow daimyos more time in their domains in the event of attack

Emperor re-emerged as powerful political figure; acted as roadblock in Shogunate's attempts to sign treaty with US

More people involved with policy matters

Intellectual of Choshu domain, advocate of sonno joi

Plotted several revolts and rebellions, gained many followers

Collaborated with Sakuma Shozan in Western Studies

Treaty of Amity and Commerce

(July 29th 1858)

Commercial treaty between the US and Japan

Immediately followed by similar treaties with other European powers

Disruptive effects: rising prices due to differences in relative value of gold and silver between Japan and the West; new deadly diseases introduced (e.g. cholera); xenophobic activism

Tokugawa Yoshitomi, the Shogun's teenage cousin; supported by Ii Naosuke, advocated continuity of the Shogunate

or Hitotsubashi Yoshinobu, an older, reformist Shogunate consultant

Ii Naosuke's appointment to Tairo (Great Elder) ensured Yoshitomi's succession

Marriage of Princess Kazunomiya of the Imperial family and 14th Shogun; evidence of the desire to strengthen the Shogunate by associating it with the court

New positions created in the Shogun's government; relaxation of sakin kotei

Influential success of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa and Hizen in their domestic reforms led to modernization policies

Grassroots activism, mainly conducted by lower samurai

"Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians!"

Centered in prominent domains Mito, Choshu, Satsuma and Tosa

Gradually became anti-Shogunate, eventually making conscious efforts to overthrow it

1855: Bureau for Western Studies established

1856: Bureau for Study of Barbarian Books

1863: Kaisei School

1862: beginning of study-abroad students

Diplomatic missions to the West in the 1860's

Primary leaders were from the court and domains of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa and Hizen

Lower samurai backgrounds

Recognition that Japan must learn from the West

Failure of 2nd military expedition to Choshu severely damaged their credibility and prestige

Death of 14th Shogun

Sentiment that Tokugawa Shogunate would be unable to stand on equal ground with the advanced West

Last-ditch effort by Tokugawa Yoshinobu (15th and final Shogun) to return power to the emperor

January 1868: Coup d'etat and official declaration of Imperial Resoration

Moriyama Einosuke: court interpreter, English and Dutch

Ranald MacDonald: English teacher

Castaways' experiences re-evaluated (they were largely ignored in the Tokugawa period), including Hamada Hikozo's Narrative of a Japanese

Recognition of the value of Western experiences; study abroad students sent from the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate

Niijima Jo of Annaka left Japan as a secret stowaway

1866: issuing passports for those wanting to go abroad; created opportunities for upward social mobility

Son of a wealthy farmer; became vassal of Hitotsubashi family, then Tokugawa Shogunate

Appointment to the head of the National Tax Bureau under Meiji Government

Not much opportunity for women to play a role outside the family

Indoctrination of women with male-centered ideas through books such as Onna Daigaku (Greater Learning for Women)

Inequality between sexes was more conspicuous among samurai than commoners