As ～

タイは仏教の国として知られている。

Thailand is known as a Buddhist country.

Unlike ～

冬は、夏と違って日が短いから、5時ごろにはもう暗くなる。

In winter, unlike in summer, it gets dark around 5pm as a day is short.

Throughout

Usually a time or place.

Usually referring to an overall period or region

四月から五月にかけてさくらの花がさく。

Throughout from April to May, Cherry blossoms.

Less clear or definite than まで

Depending on ～

人によって考え方がいろいろだ。

Opinions vary　from person to person.

As something happens, something else does as well - usually a change

Formal and Writing - Not Speaking

towards ～

Usually describing an attitude or reaction

店員はお客に対してていねいな態度をとらなければならない。

Shopkeepers must have polite attitudes toward customers.

Based on ～

Implies truthfully based on

この小説は事実に基づいて、書かれたものである。 

This novel was written based on a true story.

Regarding, concerning, about ～

この問題に関して何か意見がありますか。

Do you have any comments regarding this matter?

In place of, instead of, replacing ～

Implies the usual/original is being replaced.

若い人たちの間では手紙に代わって、電話がよく使われている。  

Among young people, telephone calls are often used replacing letters.

In response to ～

The first part is decided, and therefore the second part.

クラスの人数に応じて、使う教室を決めた。  

According to (in response to) the number of students, we decided which classroom to use.

If you don't ～A～, then you won't ～B～

Unless you do that, something bad will happen

期末試験で５０％以上取らなければ合格できない。

I cannot pass if I don’t get more than 50% in the final exam.

Must, it's necessary to ～

辞書は外国語の勉強になくてはならないものだ。

A dictionary is a necessity for the study of a foreign language.

なくては　＝　なきゃ、なくちゃ

Can't help but ～

Might ～

終電に間に合わないのではないかと思った。

I thought I might miss the last train.

Doesn't mean that ～

彼の提案に反対しなかったけれど、賛成したわけではない。

I did not oppose to his suggestion, but it doesn’t mean that I supported it. 

There's no reason to ～ OR Doesn't mean that ～

今日の会議はすっぽかすわけにはいかない。

There is no reason for skipping today’s meeting.

There's no way that ～

このような状態（じょうたい）でうまくいくわけがない。

There is no way that things go well in this situation.

Can't possibly be ～

彼女が１０時過ぎまで働いているはずがない。

She can’t possibly be working till after 10pm.

～ is not uncommon

この地方では湿度（しつど）が90％以上になることはめずらしくない。

It is not uncommon that the humidity goes up to 90% or over in this region.

Only, nothing more than ～

emphasising the level is really low or unimportant

今の仕事は理想の仕事への第一歩にすぎない。

The current job is only the first step to an ideal job.

Not always, not necessarily ～

implies exceptions to the statement exist

高いから質がいいとは限らない。

Expensive is not always good quality.

All we can do is ～, Can't do anything but ～

Strong sense of giving up. Implies writer knows it isn't the best option but accepts that they have to do it.

これ以上悪化（あっか）しないように望むほかない。

All we can do is to hope that it won’t get worse than this.

WRITING ONLY - Speaking is ～しかない

Only because, nothing other than

Very definite, finality of opinion

やる気が起こらないのは体調がわるいからにほかならない。

That you don’t get motivated is purely because your physical condition is bad.

WRITING - too formal for speaking

As/like

preliminary remark then explanation

何度も言っているように、使ったら元の場所に戻してください。

As I’m repeatedly telling you, please return it to its original place after use.

it seems to me that ～

Implies impression about.

A personal oppinion - but making it indirect.

彼女のスピーチは長かったがあまり中身がなかったように思える。

Her speech was long, but it seems to me that it had little content.

WRITING ONLY - Speaking uses 見たい、と思う、きがする

～ is unlikely

ありそうもない出来事（できごと）が次々に起こった。

Unlikely incidents happened one after another.

に、も、にも - all these particles are okay and the same meaning

Supposed to be, expected

Usually out of the speaker's control. Usually doesn't happen and expression of regret or disbelief.

楽しいはずのデートが、口喧嘩（くちげんか）のせいで楽しくなくなった。

The supposed-to-be fun date became no fun because of the argument.

No intention to do ～, don't even think about ～

Implies somebody else doesn't do something they're expected to do, or a refusal to do something they're expected to do.

お年寄りが立っているのに誰も席をゆずろうとしない。

Although an old woman was standing, no one offered a seat (no intention).

intention of doing ～

while trying to do, or just when about to do something

走って乗ろうとして閉まるドアにはさまれた。

While boading on the train (intention of boarding), I was caught by the closing doors.

The more you A, the more you B

degree or amount

これはかめばかむほど味が出る。

The more you chew, the more taste there is.

Just when ～

An interruption

シャワーに入ったところへ電話がかかってきた。

The phone rang （just） when I got in the shower.

when

Same usage as したら、した結果（けっか）

Can't have the speakers intention in S2.

今回のテスト結果と前回の結果を比べたところずいぶん上達していることがわかった。

When we compared the results of this test with those of the last test, it was found that (something) has improved.

WRITING ONLY

～と言われる

～と言われている

It is said

WRITING

～と思われる

～と思われている

It is thought

A little more instinctive, based on intuition

WRITING

～と考えられる

～と考えられている

It is considered

objective, logical, analysis

WRITING

～と見られる

～と見られている

reflects somebody's view/opinion

WRITING

Not so much that ～, not to the extent that ～

かなり暑いが寝られないほどではない。

It is very hot, but not so bad as I cannot sleep.

Must not, should not ～

ひとを見かけで判断してはならない。

You should not judge people by their appearances.