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| 1. Concentration or focus of an individual's senses in order to take in a selected aspect of the sensory work in an efficient and accurate manner Finite attentional capacity 1. Because the human mind can only attend to a finite amount of sensory info most information is lost to attenuation. Attenuation 1. Stimuli not attended to are processed too weakly to be brought to conscious awareness Attentional Bias 1. Because not all information can be attended to, our mind chooses which stimuli is most important Examples 1. People with severe anxiety will attend to threatening stimuli most 2. Cocktail Party Effect: Attending to one stimuli while ignoring others, unless very important stimuli, like the person's name, is spoken 3. Other stimuli that tend to automatically draw attention: High intensity stimuli like loud noises or bright colors, movement, repetition, strong contrasts, and novel stimuli First Comprehensive Theory 1. Broadbent's Filter Theory of Attention, the filter selects the incoming messages that will be further processed based on the physical properties of the message |
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| Affiliation is the tendency to seek out the company of others Examples of Affiliation: 1. In-group bias: The tendency to give preferential treatment to people that one perceives to be members of their own group. 2. Out-group denigration: When people act unfavorably toward people that affiliate with other groups (e.g., denigration of people with a different religious affiliation). Schachter on Anxiety and Affiliation: 1. Conducted an experiment on anxiety and whether or not anxious people prefer to correspond and wait with other anxious people. 2. Results validated the adage that "misery loves miserable company." Gender Differences with Affiliation 1. Women: tend to give more priority to close, intimate relationships than do men; they describe themselves in more relational terms, welcome more help, experience more relationship-linked emotions, and are more attuned to others' relationships (Myers, 2005). Seek affiliation when stressed. 2. Men are more focused on tasks and connect more with larger groups. Go into "fight or flight" mode when stressed |
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| The total field of forces acting on members to remain in the group Factors that foster group cohesion: 1. Presence of an outside threat 2. Distinction between in-group and out-group 3. Social and physical environment that is conducive to people frequently meeting and interacting with each other Homogeneity or similarities in interests, beliefs, skills, and abilities 4. Democratic leader who values good group feeling and group members’ input in decision-making. Negative: Group cohesion can have a negative impact on group productivity when relationship becomes more important than group's performance. |
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| A set of values and a certain code of behavior that helps to gain and maintain membership in a group. Factors that Alter Group Norms Minority Influence - The impact that a minority group has on the majority The minority group has to adopt a particular behavioral style to influence members of the majority group. First, they need to be legitimate members of the in-group. Second, they need to present a consistent and consensual message. Third, they need to be seen as having made sacrifices for their cause. Fourth, they need to be perceived as acting out of principle Idiosyncrasy Credits Points earned by a member for initially adhering to Group Norms that later allow him or her to engage in behavior that is not normally accepted by members (idiosyncratic). |
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| The tendency of people in groups to hold extreme views and a group-produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies or a strengthening of the average inclination of group members. Experiments: 1. First experiment hypothesized about the "risky-shift phenomenon." 2. Second experiment showed that caution is an option after group discussion as well, which created the idea for group polarization Distracters. |
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| Three Classification Approaches Combined Contributions: Additive tasks: The inputs of each of the group members are added together to create the group performance, and the expected performance of the group is the sum of the group members' individual input. Compensatory tasks: The group input is combined, so that the performance of the individuals is averaged rather than added. Comparing tasks based on the best and worst members: Disjunctive task: When the group's performance is determined by the best group member. Conjunctive task: When the group's performance is determined by the ability of the group member who performs most poorly. Task classification: Intellective task: Involves the ability of the group to make a decision or a judgment. Criterion task: The group can see that there is a clearly correct answer to the problem that is being posed. Judgmental task: There is no clearly correct answer to the problem that is being posed. Maximizing task: Involves performance that is measured by how rapidly the group works, or how much of a product they are able to make. Two Defining Task Types Divisible task: Categorized as work that can be divided up among individuals Unitary task: Defined as work that cannot be divided among individuals |
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| Groupthink & Group Decision-Making |
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| 1. Social power: Two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as "us" Group Decision-Making 1. Risky shift phenomenon - Groups tend to make riskier decisions 2. Group polarization. Improvement on risky shift. States that discussion typically strengthens the average inclination of group members. 3. Groupthink. "The mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action." There are multiple factors that lead to Groupthink. Factors Leading to Groupthink 1. An amiable, cohesive group is assembled 2. Relative isolation of the group from dissenting opinions 3. A directive leader who signals what decision he or she favors 4. When the group decision has dramatic consequences Suggestions to Prevent Groupthink 1. Be impartial 2. Encourage critical evaluation 3. Occasionally subdivide the group and then reunite to discuss differences 4. Welcome critiques from outside experts and associates 5. Before implementing a decision, call a "second chance" meeting to discuss lingering doubts |
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| Shared goals that necessitate cooperative effort between two or more groups Robbers Cave Experiment 1. Conducted by Sherif 2. 10-year-old boys were brought on a camping trip and divided into two groups 3. Groups began having conflict 4. Superordinate goals were created to relieve the tension between the two groups Lesson from Robbers Cave experiment Merely bringing members of different groups together will not automatically lessen hostility, but joining them in an effort to achieve a Superordinate Goal can transform group dynamics |
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| Purpose: To see how prejudice develops, how it progresses, and what it takes to eliminate discriminatory behavior as a result of prejudiced beliefs. Method Boys were broken up into two groups. Groups were matched against each other in competitive activities. Once conflict arose, "superordinate" goals were introduced. Superordinate goals acted as effective resources to reduce prejudice. Summary: Studies have shown that groups are best able to resolve conflicts if they are given a common goal to work toward, and each member is given a task to complete |
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| The idea that variability in behavior from situation to situation is far greater than had been recognized by many early theorists. Argument for Consistency Paradox In contrast to the demonstrable power of situational factors, personality scores were poor predictors of individuals’ behavior. Efforts to link personal characteristics with social behaviors, such as conformity, found only weak connections. Argument against Consistency Paradox by Trait Theorists Situation does play an important role in determining behavior, but this was already accounted for in their theories. The effects of personality may be stronger in certain situations. Snyder (1981) claims a self-selected situation is actually an expression of personality, while Atkinson (1993) proposes that behavior emerges from the interaction between person and situation. |
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| Jigsaw Technique Children of different races and ethnicities were brought together into cooperative groups. Each member of the group was assigned a segment of the lesson to be mastered and shared with the others. The different segments fit together to promote group-learning. Positive Effects of Cooperative Learning One of the most effective means for promoting positive race relations in the classroom. Improves instruction in general. Jigsaw students performed better on objective tests, grew to like each other better, and developed a greater liking for school and a greater self-esteem than children in traditional classrooms. Sharp decrease for jigsaw students in prejudice and stereotyping behaviors in the classroom. Low vs. High-Achieving Students in Cooperative Learning Low-achieving students derive the maximum benefit. High-achieving students resist the technique, complaining that the methods are not sufficiently challenging. Research 2,400 students and 71 American high schools analyzed: those of different races who play and work together are more likely to report having friends of another race and to express positive racial attitudes. |
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| A subjective feeling of not having enough space per person Effects of Crowding Studies have shown that dense urban areas experience higher rates of crime and emotional distress. Berkowitz (1972) has also posited that conditions, such as heat and overcrowding, can amplify chronic frustration and fuel riots, like those that occurred in the late 1960s in some crowded cities during major heat waves. Intensifies positive and negative reactions. Enhances general arousal. Gender Differences in the Effects of Crowding Women cope better in studies on Crowding that are set in a laboratory, while men do better in studies on Crowding that are set in naturalistic environments. High-density situations frequently produce negative moods in men, whereas women experience negative moods more frequently in low-density situations |
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| A state of "lessened self-awareness, reduced concern over social evaluation, and weakened restraints against prohibited forms of behavior" Factors that Elicit Deindividuation. Group size: Bigger groups bring arousal in members and render them unidentifiable. Physical anonymity:The fact that they cannot be identified in a large group or crowd lessens people's inhibitions. Arousing and distracting activities: Aggressive outbursts by large groups are often preceded by minor actions (clapping, singing together) that arouse and divert people's attention |
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| Differentiation Between Task and Relationship-Oriented Leaders Task-oriented Leaders: Directive and they steer the group toward its goals. Relationship-Oriented Leaders: More concerned with interpersonal interaction and the feelings of their co-workers. Differentiation Between Transformational and Transactional Leaders. Transformational Leaders: Inspire followers to work on clear, long-term goals. Transactional Leaders: Set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them Qualities of Effective Leaders Outgoing. Energetic. Conscientious. Agreeable. Emotionally stable. Self-Confident. Intelligent Gender Differences. Male: Tend to be more task-oriented. Female: Tend to be more relationally oriented and socially facilitative |
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| Refers to situations in which a group is experiencing dissent from one or more of its own members, and the number of the dissenters is significantly less than the majority Purpose Beneficial in preventing groupthink. Encourage the group members to use the central route to persuasion. To have a delayed effect on the group if the minority group members persist in their viewpoints Times when Minority Influence is effective and influential When it is consistent, persistent, and self-confident. When a member has built up "idiosyncrasy credit". The more status a group member has, the more he or she is allowed "idiosyncratic behaviors," or behaviors that go against the group's expectations. First must conform to the majority of the group to attain status |
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| The tendency in which people may exert less effort when they are part of a group that is working toward a common goal rather than when they are individually accountable for the output. Key to Social Loafing Evaluation Apprehension: The awareness that one's performance is being monitored. Negative correlation between evaluation apprehension and social loafing. Examples of Experiments that prove Social Loafing: - Pulling on a rope- Riding a bicycle- Producing noise- Tipping at a restaurant: Percent tip is negatively correlated with group size |
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| 1. Social Facilitation: Dominant responses are strengthened by the presence of others. Social Inhibition: The idea that in some tasks, such as learning nonsense syllables and performing complex multiplication problems, the presence of others hinders performance. Zajonc's Theory Arousal enhances whatever response tendency is dominant. Heightened arousal enhances performance on easy, well-learned, or routine tasks for which the most likely or "dominant" response is the correct one. However, for more complex tasks where the most likely or dominant response is the wrong response, heightened arousal induces incorrect responding. This idea solved the dilemma between Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition |
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| Varying Aspects New Research: Contrary to the popular idea that face-to-face Brainstorming generates more ideas than the same people working alone, researchers have found that people working individually usually generate more good ideas than they would working in a group. Explanation: Social Inhibition Theory: There is a worsening of performance when a group is engaged in a complex task. Times Brainstorming is effective. Highly motivated and diverse groups. The groups are primed with categories of possible ideas |
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| Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone Types of Aggression 1.Instrumental: Aggressive behavior that is a means to some end 2. Hostile: Takes place without any added incentive; it is violence for the sake of violence 3. Reactive: Emotionally driven (i.e., a reaction to perceived threat) 4. Proactive: Involves initiating aggressive behavior with some goal in mind and no perceived threat 5. Relational: Harms or threatens to harm relationships and is more likely to be used by girls 6. Physical: Physical attempt to hurt 7. Passive: An indirect way of expressing anger while denying any purposeful wrongdoing Theories of Aggression 1. Dollard's Frustration-Aggression Theory: Frustration creates a motive to aggress 2. Bandura's Social Learning Theory: We learn social behavior, like aggression, by observing and imitating, and by being rewarded and punished 3. Catharsis Hypothesis on Reducing Aggression a. Following Freud's "hydraulic model," proponents of the catharsis hypothesis liken accumulated aggressive energy to dammed-up water; unless Aggression is allowed to drain off, it will produce some sort of an explosion – an aggressive explosion b. Researchers over the years, however, have discovered that, contrary to catharsis hypothesis, expressing Aggression more often increases rather than reduces further Aggression |
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| The interpretation of non-verbal messages expressed through movement or expressions of the face or parts of the body Birdwhistell Studied messages communicated through movement, stance, and posture. Argued all movements of the body are purposeful and can be "read" in a manner similar to spoken language. Claimed only 30-35 percent of communication between people is words. Uses for Kinesics Method of discerning truthful statements from lies in law enforcement and the military. Management coaches promote kinesics as an approach to clearer communication and better relationships between corporate workers. |
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| Refers to the tendency to remain "mum" or silent about undesirable messages Factors that decrease the likelihood of Undesirable Message Transmission 1. The transmitter of the message cannot empathize with the recipient and experiences guilty feelings 2. Intensity of the bad news 3. The transmitter believes the recipient does not want to hear the news |
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| Consultation is an interaction between two professionals in which the consultant assists the consultee with a particular work problem and enables the two to discuss psychosocial implications of the difficult case. Definition of consultee-centered case Consultation 1. Focuses directly on the issues of the consultee, like personal impressions or distortions 2. Goal is to help the consultee be able to give a correct diagnosis of the client without the consultant directly diagnosing the client Consultee issues discussed by a Consultant 1. Lack of understanding 2. Lack of skill 3. Lack of objectivity 4. Lack of confidence and self-esteem Three other types of Consultation 1. Client-Centered Case Consultation – Focuses on a single client and discovering the most effective method of treatment for that particular client 2. Consultee-Centered Administrative Consultation – Focuses on difficulties a consultee may be facing when attempting to administer a program 3. Program-Centered Administrative Consultation – Focuses on developing or modifying an agency or clinical program. |
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| 1. Clinical consultations occur when a therapist (the consultee) loses objectivity with a client, as the consultee's repressed or unconscious subjectivity is "triggered" through the consultee/client interaction. 2. The therapist's perspective is then limited, and a consultant is hired to analyze the case. Two techniques to overcome Theme Interference. Unlinking: The consultant provides insight into the Theme Interference by untangling the therapist's past and their current interactions with the client. 2. Theme Interference reduction: The consultant assists the consultee in brainstorming additional outcomes for the client, broadening the consultee's perspective. |
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| An act of maltreatment against individuals under the age of 18 Statistics 1. Occurs in all races, genders, and socioeconomic levels 2. Highest rates of abuse occurred in African-American children followed by American Indian then Pacific Islanders 3. 50 percent of Child Abuse-related fatalities in 2005 were White children 4. Child maltreatment is perpetrated by women more often than men 5. Sexual abuse is perpetrated more frequently by men 6. 33 percent of abused children become abusive parents 7. Most cases of sexual abuse are caused by family friends or relatives of the child Factors that increase likelihood of abuse 1. Single parent households 2. Living in poverty 3. Low self-esteem, negative outlook, and low flexibility in parents 4. Cognitive distortions by parents 5. Parents that were abused ("cycle of violence" hypothesis) Effects 1. Very psychologically harmful if the offender has a close relationship with the child 2. With sexual abuse, a person will sometimes repress the memory until adulthood Typical behavior of the offender 1. Usually admit to the behavior but minimize the damage of their actions and instead blame the child 2. Rationalize, justify, and excuse their own abusive behavior |
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| Children and Hospitalization |
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Definition
| Effects of hospitalization on children 1. Fear of an unfamiliar setting 2. Fear of experiencing pain 3. Loss of control 4. Separation anxiety Effects of parental support 1. Child's rate of health improvement and timeliness of discharge are impacted by parental support 2. Helps to calm children when they have been hospitalized 3. Helps to psychologically manage the situation 4. Lessens a child’s fear of needing to be readmitted |
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| Emotionally, sexually, or physically violent acts,threatened or actual, that occur within the context of an intimate relationship Statistics 1. Nearly 25 percent of women have experienced domestic violence in some form 2. 11.5 percent of men reported experiencing victimization by an intimate partner Effects on Children 1. Witnesses and direct victims both experience higher levels of aggression and delinquent behavior than children not exposed to domestic abuse 2. Higher rates of anxiety, depression, and taking on a victim role in other relationships Cycle of Violence 1. Honeymoon Phase: Abuser is kind, caring, gentle, and affectionate toward the partner 2. Tension Building Phase: Growing unrest in the relationship; the abuser may become increasingly jealous, short tempered and paranoid toward the partner 3. Acting Out Phase: Physical or emotional violence takes place, lasting for minutes to several hours 4. Reconciliation Phase: Apologies, excuses are made, possible denial of incident occurrence Types of Abuse 1. Common Couple Violence: Aggression is used occasionally, usually due to poor coping strategies and communication skills 2. Patriarchal Terrorism: A persistent pattern of abuse used by a male to control a female 3. Instrumental Abuse: Involves a brutal act with little provocation Effects on Victim 1. Likely to want to believe the abuser’s promises and is willing to forgive 2. May also believe that she was partially at fault for the abuser’s explosion, and is, therefore, more likely to forgive |
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| Patterns 1. Tends to follow a U-shape: decreasing with child birth and increasing when children leave home and couples retire. 2. Arranged marriages show the same pattern, although satisfaction starts out lower Commitment 1. Tends to be a major predictor of marital satisfaction 2. Is comprised of rewards one receives from the relationship, the amount of resources one invests, and the availability of alternative partners. Divorce 1. 50 percent of first marriages in the United States end in divorce. Impact of Divorce on Children 1. Only 25 percent of children who go through a divorce experience long-term consequences (usually those who witness open conflict between parents). 2. Younger children tend to have more immediate problems, but older children tend to have more persistent problems (i.e., deviance and relationship impairment). |
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| Three Main Topics 1. Attractiveness. Found that even for children at a nursery school, attractive children were more liked by their peers than physically unattractive children. Experiment on perceived attractiveness resulted in the idea that physically attractive people may come to think of themselves as good or lovable because they are continually treated that way. 2. Emotions in relationships. Emotion-in-relationship model: Posits that a partner is most likely to experience a high degree of emotion, both positive and negative, in an intimate relationship when her partner's behavior disrupts an organized sequence of behaviors. It may be harder to elicit strong positive emotions in a long-term relationship because the partners have established patterns of organized behavior 3. Two-factor theory of love. Mutual attraction and reciprocal reinforcement are the two elements in love |
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| A motive to increase another person's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests Purposes for Altruism 1. Social-Exchange Theory: Posits that helping, like other social behaviors, is motivated by a desire to minimize costs and maximize rewards 2. Social Norm Theory: Argues that helping is mandated by the social group's norms or behavioral expectations 3. Reciprocity Norm: We help those who have helped us 4. Social-Responsibility Norm: We help needy people so long as they are deserving 5. Evolutionary Psychology: Theorizes that Altruism arises out of devotion to kin (Altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance survival of mutually selected genes) and reciprocity (an organism helps another because it expects help in return) Darley and Latane's Research on Genovese Murder 1. Discovered the "bystander effect": The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders Statistics 1. By 1980, four dozen experiments had compared help given by bystanders, who perceived themselves to be either alone or with others 2. In approximately 90 percent of these comparisons, which combined totaled observations of more than 60,000 people, lone bystanders were more likely to help 3. Research has also shown that the best way to increase helping behavior in a community is to decrease the anonymity of individuals in the group |
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| Four Main Factors that Promote Attraction 1. Proximity 2. Physical Attractiveness 3. Similarity 4. Reciprocity Phenomenon: One’s liking for another usually predicts the other person’s liking in return; liking is often mutual Gain-Loss Theory 1. A gain has more impact on liking than a set of events that are all positive Social Exchange Theory 1. Feelings about a relationship depend on an individual's perception of the rewards and costs of the relationship, what the person thinks he or she deserves, and if there is a chance being involved with someone else would result in a better relationship. Equity Theory: 1. People are most happy with relationships in which the costs, rewards, and contributions of each party are equal |
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| 1. More so than intelligence, sensitivity, sincerity, and other personality traits, Hatfield (1966) found that Physical Attractiveness is the most influential factor in whether two people will date again 2. Physical Attractiveness is also the most important factor in initial attraction Areas where physical attractiveness determines treatment 1. Classroom 2. Workplace Positive attributes attributed to physically attractive people 1. Happiness 2. Warmth 3. Intelligence 4. Success Physical Attractiveness Stereotype 1. The tendency for people to believe "that which is beautiful is also good" Characteristics that influence Physical Attractiveness 1. Face symmetry 2. Waist-to-hip ratio 3. Face structure around the "golden ratio" 4. Traits that signal good health and fertility |
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| The distance surrounding a person that is felt to "belong" to that individual Factors that influence how physically close a person allows others to come to them 1. Culture: People from Northern European cultures tend to require relatively large amounts of Personal Space, (they do not engage in as much physical contact or allow others to stand as close to them as do Mediterranean, Latin, or Middle Eastern cultures). 2. Familiarity: People often like to keep their friends close (between two and three feet), while they protect their Personal Space with strangers (at least four feet). 3. Social Status: People allow others of similar status to come closer than people of unequal status. 4. Gender: In the West, women tend to have closer Personal Space needs than men, especially when two women are in communication. Men in the West tend to keep a relatively large distance between themselves and other men. 5. Age: Children have closer Personal Space rules than adults. |
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| A hostile or negative attitude toward a distinguishable group on the basis of generalizations derived from faulty or incomplete information What Prejudice is comprised of: Cognitions directed at a person or people group when given the possibility. Behaviors directed at a person or people group when given the possibility. Emotions directed at a person or people group when given the possibility. Types of Prejudice: Overt. Subtle Factors that contribute to the development and sustainability of Prejudice Economic and political competition. Displaced aggression. Maintenance of status or self-image. Dispositional prejudice. Conformity to social norms Ways to reduce Prejudice Introducing a common enemy. Introducing "superordinate" goals. Increase contact with members of other races. Increase equal-status contact with other races |
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| A person is more likely to help another individual if they have previously been helped by them in the past. Extensions of Reciprocity Principle Gift-giving. Favors. "Reciprocal Liking": An individual is more likely to "like" another person if they believe that the person "likes" them. |
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| This theory postulates that when an individual contemplates entering a new relationship, they weigh the benefits of a relationship (e.g., emotional support, financial stability) against the costs of a relationship (e.g., emotional liability, conflicting interests). Complementarity Hypothesis: The theory that opposites attract. Individuals in a relationship offer what the other is missing. Research has not supported this idea |
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| Confluence Model of Sexual Aggression |
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Definition
| Men who sexually coerce women had a history of combining impersonal sex with hostile masculinity Effects of Exposure to Violent Pornography Predisposition to aggression. Promotes greater acceptance of sexual violence toward women. Factor associated with physically aggressive behavior toward women. Men create more violent sexual fantasies than those who watch mutual consent pornography Characteristics of Men who behave in Sexually Agressive Ways Desire dominance. Exhibit hostility toward women. Sexually promiscuous |
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| 1. 21.4 teens out of 1,000 became pregnant in 2005 2. 38.6 teens out of 1,000 became pregnant in 1991 3. 45 percent decrease in teen pregnancy between 1991 and 2005 4. Distribution of condoms does not increase or decrease sexual activity Effects 1. More likely to live in poverty and smoke during pregnancy 2. Less likely to attain a high school diploma and acquire prenatal care Prevention 1. Curriculum-based programs are most effective when they have narrow-focus, clear curriculum, and relevant basic information about STDs and pregnancy 2. Also successful programs include information on peer pressure and how to say "no" to unwanted sexual intercourse |
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| Observational Learning Theory |
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Definition
| Posits that humans learn to interact with their environment and respond to it by modeling the behavior of those around us, including the rewards and punishments that accompany certain behaviors Types of adults whose behavior is modeled 1. Respected 2. Powerful 3. Attractive "Bobo" doll experiment 1. Children witnessed aggressive treatment of a "bobo" doll 2. Children who witnessed the treatment became more aggressive themselves Pro-social behaviors learned by children 1. Altruism 2. Assertiveness 3. Conscientiousness 4. Responsibility |
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| 1. Most violent acts instigated by youths under 18 are committed by males 2. Youth Violence is primarily driven by a sense of powerlessness 3. Men who liked to watch violent TV at age 8 were more likely to commit serious criminal acts later in life 4. Most crimes (e.g., murders, rapes) tend to occur between members of the same race Possible Explanations 1. While women were gatherers and nurturers, young men were hunters and protectors. During this time period, the most aggressive youth could perform their duties most adequately and ensure the survival of their genes 2. Violence is learned through exposure to bloodshed on TV and in video games, and consequently modeled in reality 3. Rise of testosterone levels in male youths also is suggested as a factor in aggression 4. Watching violence may result in desensitization, increasing the risk of engaging or allowing violence not generally tolerated. Effects of Urban Poverty. Environment that can foster powerlessness and rage 2. Provide an environment where youth can be exposed to drugs, gangs, and criminal activities |
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| 1. Negative attitudes and discrimination toward LGBTs due to fear of what is not considered acceptable 2. Internalized Homophobia: Fear is internalized against the self due to society's negative messages toward LGBTs 3. Linked with substance abuse, depression, anxiety, self-hatred and shame, presents an obstacle to positive LGBT identity formation 4. General paucity in levels of clinicians' education and comfort with LGBT matters 5. Therapists must be aware of attitudes and beliefs toward LGBT to avoid damage to client's therapeutic experience 6. Clinician needs to be aware of client's internalized Homophobia for proper treatment 7. Clinicians seek peer consultation when aware of negative countertransferance 8. Division 44 of APA for resources, education, and ethical guidelines 9. Sexual Orientation Matrix for Supervision (SOMS) for supervisors and supervisees: assesses heterosexual bias and acceptance of lesbian, gay and bisexual orientations and behavior 10. Treatments: ESP is OK to use with LGBT affirmative mindset; culturally sensitive person-centered |
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Definition
| Qualities of Achievement Motivational Style (n-ach) 1. Seek attainment of realistic, but challenging goals, and strive for advancement in their positions 2. Value achievement more than "fitting in" 3. Work best with a supervisor who offers regular feedback on their progress while acknowledging their goal attainment 4. Tend to have a positive self-view and see themselves accomplishing positive things 5. The most common ego-defensive behavior is to make dispositional or internal attributions for successes and situational or external attributions for failures; this tendency is termed "self-serving bias" 6. Work well independently or with other high achievers |
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Term
| Overjustification Hypothesis |
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Definition
| If an individual believes their behavior is motivated by extrinsic rewards, rather than intrinsic motivation, their interest in a task will decrease Deci's Experiment Students in the control work individually on an interesting puzzle. Students in experimental group are paid one dollar for each piece of puzzle completed. Neither group was paid in the third session Results of Experiment Unrewarded group spent more free time on the task than the rewarded group, whose interest waned when no rewards were forthcoming. Able to show that offering rewards to people for performing a pleasant activity actually decreases the intrinsic attractiveness of that activity |
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| Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory suggests that when inconsistency exists between "our attitudes, or between our attitudes and our behavior, we experience an unpleasant state of arousal called Cognitive Dissonance" Five major tenets 1. Attitudes and behaviors can be in agreement or disagreement with one another (i.e., consonant or dissonant, respectively) 2. Conflicting attitudes and behaviors leave an individual with an unpleasant state of arousal 3. Due to this unpleasant state, people are motivated to change an attitude or behavior, by so doing, reducing the discomfort they feel 4. The greater the amount of dissonance, the stronger the motivation to reduce it 5. Dissonance can be lessened by rationalizing away the inconsistency or by changing an attitude or a behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions Studies that empirically proved Confirmation Bias 1. Snyder and Swann ((1978) a. Showed examples of Confirmation Bias in students designing questions to demonstrate whether a person was an introvert or an extrovert; the student-subjects composed questions aimed at confirming their expectation of someone being an introvert or extrovert 2. Rosenhan (1973) a. Showed examples of Confirmation Bias when making psychiatric diagnoses; patient-subjects were treated as mentally ill by clinicians, in spite of no further evidence of illness during their hospital stay, as to confirm clinicians' original diagnosis of schizophrenia b. Work also emphasizes the importance of recognizing the limitations of our own cognitive facilities, while highlighting the dangers of depersonalization and labeling when formulating psychiatric diagnoses |
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| Mental representations of expected sequences of events Purposes of Script They serve as a way to reason about prototypical events. They serve as valuable bases for predicting missing information and for correcting errors in information. They shape the way in which we process and remember information. |
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Definition
| 1. 2.4million people die in the United States each year 2. Current life expectancy is 77.8 years, and the most common cause of Death is heart disease, followed by cancer, stroke, chronic respiratory diseases, and accidents 3. Among infants, the leading cause of Death is congenital malformations, followed by disorders related to short gestation and low-birth weight, and SIDS Kubler-Ross Five Stages of Grief 1. Stage One: Characterized by attempts to limit awareness involving shock, denial, and isolation. A sense of social isolation also accompanies the feelings of denial and shock 2. Stage Two: Characterized by increased awareness and emotional release. The individual affectively acknowledging the Death and the resulting feelings of anger, guilt, and resentment characterizes this experience. They also display physiological symptoms of distress 3. Stage Three: Called "bargaining." During the bargaining stage, the mourner attempts to postpone the inevitable and may apply "magical" thinking. They might make promises to do something in exchange for divine or supernatural help. 4. Stage Four: Referred to as "depression." Depression begins when denial of the loss can no longer be maintained and attempts at bargaining have failed. Discomfort at the affective acknowledgment of anger may cause grieving individuals to internalize angry feelings, due to a need to regulate their affect and an absence of coping skills to deal with anger and guilt 5. Stage Five: Stage five is acceptance and resolution. In the final stage, the individual comes to terms with reality. There is a reinvestment in social activities, and the individual is able to talk about the loss and remember the deceased without experiencing severe emotional upheaval Kubler-Ross Five Stages of Dying 1. Stage One (Denial): The terminally ill person initially reacts with shock and appears dazed and may refuse to believe the diagnosis. Some people never pass beyond this stage and may go from doctor to doctor until they find one who supports their position 2. Stage Two (Anger): The person becomes frustrated, irritable, and angry at being ill. They may displace their anger onto others 3. Stage Three (Bargaining): The person may attempt to negotiate with physicians, friends, or even God, in return for a cure 4. Stage Four (Depression): Show clinical signs of depression, such as withdrawal, psychomotor retardation, sleep disturbances, hopelessness, and possibly suicidal ideation 5. Stage Five (Acceptance): The terminally ill person realizes that Death is inevitable and comes to accept the universality of the experience. Their feelings can range from a neutral (equanimous) to euphoric in mood Freud on Death 1. Humans are born with an instinct toward life (Eros) 2. Humans are born with an equally strong instinct toward death (Thanatos) 3. Society performs an essential function in regulating these instincts and in helping people sublimate them, that is, turn the energy into acceptable or useful behavior |
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| Posits that people have a tendency to base decisions more heavily on the fear of loss than prospect of gain Examples: 1. People would rather take an option at $1 million with a probability of 1/1 over taking an option at $2.5 million with the probability of ½. 2. People would rather take an option of a certain gain and a loss of nothing over taking the option at gaining $10 with ½ probability and lose $10 with ½ probability. |
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| A common reaction to the trauma ofbeing raped consisting of three phases Acute Phase Occurs days and weeks after the rape and causes reaction which can be characterized in three ways: Expressed: When having this type of response, the individual overtly expresses her or his beliefs and emotions about the rape. May appear hysterical to others and may experience panic attacks. Controlled: Person reacts as though she or he has control of all the feelings and thoughts about the rape. This individual may act fine or may appear to be in shock. Shocked Disbelief: Involves being disoriented and confused following ther ape. The person with this response may report having difficulty with memory and performance of everyday tasks Outward Adjustment Phase 1. Individual makes attempts to continue living as prior to the rape. Internally, however, the person is still in psychological distress 2. The individual may also try to find an explanation as to why the rape occurred. Attempts to escape the pain of the rape may be enacted in various ways such as by moving to another residence or refusing to return to places that serve as reminders of the rape 3. Dramatization: Person becomes consumed with the experience and feels a need to speak often about what happened. During this phase, the person may experience flashbacks of the rape, sexual issues, anger, and depression Resolution Phase Person acknowledges the rape and its effects. The person, however, does not feel consumed by the experience and does not feel that the rape defines her or him. The person experiences a decrease in psychological distress and a desire to move on in life |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Emic derives from "phonemic" and Etic from "phonetic" 2. Contrasting approaches to the study of cultures and humanity 3. Each has different focus and uses a different type of analysis Emic 1. "Focuses on the intrinsic cultural distinctions that are meaningful to the members of a given society" (Lett, 2007) 2. Interprets behavior, cognitions, and affect within the cultural context of the group being studied 3. Associated with the qualitative study of ethnography Etic 1. Looks at the extrinsic variables affecting a cultural group (for example, how much energy is consumed by each person in a particular group) 2. Interprets and compares behavior, cognitions, and affect based on universal constructs 3. Associated with ethnology and quantitative analysis |
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| The degree to which a member of a culturally diverse group accepts and adheres to the values, customs, and behaviors of his or her own group and the dominant group. Four Categories: 1. Integration: Used to describe people who maintain their minority culture identity but also incorporate many aspects of the dominant culture. 2. Assimilation: Describes people who reject their own culture and accept the values of the dominant culture. 3. Separation: Describes people who withdraw from the dominant culture and accept the minority culture as their own. 4. Marginalization: Used for people who identify with neither the majority nor minority culture. Individuals who fall into this category often feel alienated from both cultures. Ways to Assess the Levels of Adjustment and Acculturation 1. Competence in the English language and negotiation of the tasks of learning to live in this country. 2. Number of years living in the U.S. 3. Age at time of immigration. 4. Exposure to Western culture in the country of origin. 5. Contacts with native-born Americans. Frameworks to Gauge Levels of Acculturation 1. Numerative Framework: Gauges whether a person is first, second or third generation. 2. Descriptive Framework: Describes which culture(s) the family identifies with. Salient Issues in Psychotherapy with Minorities 1. Reason for migration. 2. Whether one family member migrated alone, or whether a large portion of the family, community, or nation came together. |
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Definition
| Influences of Conveying Information. Individual personality. Goals. Culture. Gender. Types of Communicating in Cultures. High-Context: Rely on nonverbal communication and contextual factors to provide the meaning of a message, and often require consensus to make and communicate decisions. Low-Context: Rely less on consensus and place more value on using the literal meaning of words to convey a message. Differences in Emotional Expressivity. High-Context: Predominately low levels of public emotional expressivity is accepted. Low-Context: Predominately higher levels of public emotional expressivity is accepted. Exceptions to every rule, e.g. high-context Mexican culture has high levels of public emotional expressivity, and low-context European culture many times has low levels of public emotional expressivity. People in Mediterranean cultures seem to be more moderately context-oriented (neither too high or low) and to accept public emotional expressivity. Gender Differences. Men: Act more independently and persuasively, talking assertively, interrupting intrusively, touching with the hand, staring more, and smiling less. Women: Attempt a more indirect style of influence, less interruptive, more sensitive, more polite, and less cocky. Authoritarian Personality. Refers to the need to be dominated or to dominate, as a result of the fear of being isolated, and external locus, and the belief that happiness comes from submission. |
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Definition
| Differences between cultures 1. Mindsets 2. Customs 3. Lifestyles Indigenous/Emic approach to cross-cultural research 1. Involves intensive study of psychological phenomena within separate cultures 2. Psychologists study behavior from within the system, examining only one culture at a time 3. Goal is to discover rather than impose a structure on the research and to use criteria relative to internal cultural characteristics Universalist/Etic approach 1. A quest for commonalities across many or all cultures 2. Psychologists study behavior from a position outside the system 3. Examine two or more cultures and compare them using criteria that are considered absolute or universal Differences Between Cultures 1. Concept of personal identity: Eastern cultures favor a group identity, whereas Western cultures favor individual autonomy 2. Concept of the body: For Westerners, the mind and body are separate, whereas Easterners see mind and body as a whole 3. Norms of expressiveness and personal space: Someone from a relatively formal Northern European culture, a person from Mediterranean culture may seem warm and charming, but also inefficient and time wasting. To the person from the Mediterranean culture, the Northern European may seem efficient, cold, and over concerned with time Terms to be Familier with 1. Contact Hypothesis: The more cultures have an opportunity to interact, the less racism is likely to occur. 2. Symbolic Racism: Modern-day racism that stems from unresolved issues with African-Americans. |
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Term
| Cultural Identity Development |
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Definition
| 1. Conformity: This is marked by positive attitudes and preference for the values of the dominant culture over their own (the reference group is White Americans in the United States) 2. Dissonance: This stage is marked by confusion and conflict over the contradictory values of the dominant culture and one's personal minority culture 3. Resistance and Immersion: At this stage, the culturally different client completely endorses minority-held views and rejects the dominant values of society and culture 4. Introspection: The individual begins to discover that this level of intensity of feelings (anger directed toward White society) is psychologically draining and does not permit one to devote energies to understanding his own group 5. Integrative Awareness: The person achieves an inner sense of cultural security and can now own and appreciate unique aspects of his culture as well as those of U.S. culture. |
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| 1. The heterogeneity of a particular demographic characteristic within a defined group 2. Institutionally, diversity is typically accepted as inevitable, or encouraged 3. In the workforce, Affirmative Action is a series of laws that were intended to institutionalize diversity Statistics 1. In 2006, women accounted for 46 percent of the workforce 2. Between 1994 and 2005, 51 percent of new employees in the United States were members of ethnic groups other than non-Hispanic Whites 3. By the middle of the 21st century, these diverse groups will equal the population of non-Hispanic Whites in the United States Multiculturalism 1. Individual and group differences are to be understood and appreciated Assimilation 1. Individual differences are diffused into the characteristics of the dominant culture Three forms of Racism 1. Institutional Racism The maintenance or enforcement of structural mechanisms in organizations that discriminate against non-dominant groups. This form of racism is not necessarily deliberate or consciously enacted 2. Individual Racism A personal attitude or philosophy that attempts to exploit or devalue a racial group. This can be expressed implicitly through unconscious reactions, or explicitly through behaviors and overt attitudes 3. Internalized Racism An oppressed group accepts and internalizes negative stereotypes against themselves. Even when not accepted, Stereotype threat suggests that biases influence behavior due to apprehension of prejudice |
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Definition
| 1. It has been found to be very useful for the therapist to gain an understanding of the symbolic meanings of certain beliefs in supernatural entities or rituals, if they have a strong influence on the client's mindset. Treatment adherence also can be improved if the therapist can obtain cooperation of indigenous traditional practitioners who are likely to be knowledgeable about local beliefs and practices. Salish Indian Cultural Beliefs The spirit song represents the power of the guardian spirit, a concept shared by many Native Americans. To hear one's spirit song was a sign of "spirit sickness" through possession by the guardian spirit. If one suffered from spirit sickness and did not partake in a spirit dance ceremony, they were in danger of succumbing to the sickness. If they participated in the dance ceremony, they would harness, and benefit from, the power of the guardian spirit. Today, spirit sickness is seen by the Salish Indian ritualists to be the result of imposed acculturation and exposure to negative aspects of Western society. The spirit dance initiation has been reworked into a collective therapeutic process involving physical, didactic, and psychological methods to induce an altered state of consciousness, leading to the initiate's "rebirth as a true Indian person." "Cuento" Therapy Originates from Puerto Rico. Involves the use of folk tales to present positive role models for children and adolescents dealing with psychological issues such as anxiety, low-self esteem, and acting-out. |
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Term
| Working with African Americans |
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Definition
| Differences between Eurocentric and Africentric Values Time Orientation: The Eurocentric worldview is future-oriented and time-determined, whereas the Africentric worldview is here-and-now oriented and event-determined. Guiding Principles of Action: While the Eurocentric worldview focuses on fulfillment of individual needs and individual responsibility, the Africentric worldview highlights achievement of collective or cultural goals. Behavior Orientation: The Eurocentric worldview upholds self-actualization, "doing," and projection of feelings, but the Africentric worldview values collective-actualization, "being," and expression of feelings. Myths about African-American Families It is a myth that Black families are matriarchal: Instead they are considered egalitarian System of Treatment Multi-Systems approach involving social, political, and economic factors etc. |
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Term
| Working with Asian Americans |
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Definition
| Preferences of Asian-American Clients Highly structured approach. Directive approach. Authoritarian Approach Culture’s Effects on Help-Seeking Behaviors of patient’s problems. How the problem will be expressed. Who should be consulted. Preferred treatment strategies. Shame, humiliation, rejection and scapegoating can be evidenced Typical sequence of Help-Seeking by Chinese Families Intrafamilial coping Consultation with elders. Seeking outside help like acupuncturists and herbalists. Seek a physician or religious figure. Last resort is to consult Western hospitals |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A woman’s voluntary termination of a pregnancy Statistics. 1. 16 out of every 1000 women ages 15-44 have had Abortions each year since 2000 2. Unmarried White women under the age of 25 reported the greatest percentage of Abortions 3. Women between the ages of 20-24 obtained the highest number of Abortions 4. Fewest Abortions in women less than 15 and over 40. 5. Abortion rates consistent in the U.S. from 1998-2004. Effects of Abortion 1. Emotions such as guilt, regret, relief, or ambivalence, but, according to the preponderance of published studies, they are unlikely to experience long-term negative, psychological effects such as PTSD. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A psychological model that seeks to explain how and why people use health services Rosenstock’s Original Health Belief Model 1. Four Constructs predictive of health behaviors Perceived Susceptibility - An individual's assessment of their risk of getting the condition Perceived Severity - An individual's assessment of the seriousness of the condition and its potential consequences Perceived Barriers - An individual's assessment of the influences that facilitate or discourage adoption of the promoted behavior Perceived Benefits - An individual’s assessment of the positive consequences of adopting the behavior Study of the Predictive Value of Health Belief Models 1. Barriers were the most reliable predictors of health behaviors, followed by susceptibility, benefits, and severity, respectively 2. The median delay in getting treatment for all psychological disorders in America is approximately a decade |
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Term
| Demographic Distribution of Mental Illness |
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Definition
| Mental illness and location 1. Longevity in rural vs. urban settings Longer in urban settings for affective disorders, no difference for anxiety disorders 2. Prevalence of drug abuse in rural vs. urban settings Overall, about the same, though popularity of specific drugs vary between settings. In both settings, substance abuse is likely to be comorbid with other psychological disorders 3. Access of mental health care in rural vs. urban settings Lower for rural settings. Lower for ethnic minorities within urban settings 4. Socioeconomic Status and mental illness: Diagnosis of psychotic disorders is inversely related to SES. Diagnosis of non-psychotic disorders is directly related to SES |
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Definition
| 1. Suggests that to understand an individual's behavior, one must comprehend the totality of his or her environment (biological and psychological) within the present context Lewin 1. Fields are the physical and psychological life spaces a person occupies 2. Behavior results from the interactions of all parts or regions in a field 3. Tensions are the biological or psychological needs that arise 4. Attraction to a new region because of a need is believed to reduce the tension and is a positive valence 5. Repulsion away from a region because of a need, because the region would increase tension, is a negative valence 6. The direction a region pushes is the vector acting upon the person |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A medical condition in which excess fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse impact on health Statistics 1. An adult is considered to be overweight when he or she has a BMI of 25 to 29.9 and obese if his or her BMI is 30 or more 2. Obesity has reached epidemic levels globally 3. In the United States, the overall prevalence of Obesity has been steadily increasing over the past 20 years 4. From 2005 and on, Obesity was the number two preventable disease in the United States, second only to tobacco use 5. Most common nutritional problem in the elderly population is Obesity in the U.S Factors that influence a person's likelihood to become obese 1. Genetics 2. Cultural standards 3. Socio-economic level 4. Mental health Treatment 1. Exercise 2. Diet 3. Counseling 4. Drug-therapy 5. Surgery Externality Hypothesis 1. Obese individuals are more responsive to external stimuli than they are to internal stimuli 2. Best way for an obese individual to lose weight is to manipulate external cues to limit their temptation to eat Set Point Theory1. Each person has a genetically predetermined "set point" weight that is controlled by metabolic hormones and fat cell enzymes 2. Scientific support for set point theory is waning |
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Term
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Definition
| Effects 1. Priming people's fear does not always make a message more potent 2. Many people who have been made afraid of AIDS are not abstaining from sex or using condoms Recommendations 1. Celibacy 2. Monogamy 3. Use of Condoms Proper use can significantly reduce the transmission of HIV. Appeals involving use of condoms typically involve fear of death or disease. These appeals may actually cause individuals to block all thoughts of death, disease, and condoms resulting in a continuation of very risky behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Affiliated, intimate, or sexual relationships or desires between partners of one's own gender Statistics 1. 5-6 Percent of Men consider themselves homosexual 2. 2-3 Percent of Women consider themselves homosexual 3. In the Netherlands, Peru, and the U.K., percentage of men that consider themselves homosexual is 2 times the rate in the U.S. Cass' Homosexuality Model of Development 1. Identity Confusion: Individual experiences feelings of confusion and turmoil in which he or she begins questioning their previously assumed heterosexual identity. The individual begins considering the possibility of a gay identity. 2. Identity Comparison: This is the first tentative commitment to a Homosexual identity, characterized by strong feelings of alienation and a sense of not belonging to a society 3. Identity Tolerance: The individual tolerates rather than accepts a gay identity; although feelings of ambivalence predominate, the person seeks out other gay people to counter the feelings of isolation and alienation 4. Identity Acceptance: The individual accepts rather than tolerates a gay image of self, increases contact with gay people, and increasingly experiences gay subculture and normalized gay identity and lifestyle 5. Identity Pride: The commitment to the gay community grows strong, resulting in sense of group identity 6. Identity Synthesis: The individual integrates his or her gay identity with all other aspects of self; homosexuality is seen as just one aspect of self Dimensions of Homosexuality 1. Gay Marriage: Legalized in some states 2. Adoption Rights for Gay and Lesbian Couples a. Children growing up in gay or lesbian families are just as popular with peers, and that there are no differences in the adjustment and mental health of children living in these families when compared to children in heterosexual families b. The overwhelming majority of children growing up in a gay or lesbian family have a heterosexual orientation 3. Prejudice toward homosexual people increases with older age, male gender, and religious fundamentalism |
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Term
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Definition
| Statistics 1. 2 million Inpatient Admissions to mental health facilities in 1997 2. Males are more likely than females to be referred to Inpatient Admission for mental health care 3. Adults are twice as likely as children under the age of 18 to be referred to inpatient care 4. Women are more likely to report symptoms accurately and seek medical treatment than men 5. The rates for psychiatric hospitalization are significantly higher for immigrants in the U.S., especially males 6. Most common diagnosis that leads to Inpatient Admission is schizophrenia Positive Reasons for State to Community Hospital Shift 1. Better recovery environment in communities that does not involve removing a person from his or her families, jobs, and other social support 2. Greatly reduced the cost of care for each individual Negative Reasons for State to Community Hospital Shift 1. Often underfunded, unprepared, or unwilling to help individuals 2. Causes "revolving-door" patients who are consistently readmitted to mental health units |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Job Satisfaction increases steadily throughout the work life from age 20 to at least age 60, both for college-educated and non-college-educated adults. Same pattern was found for men and women. Factors for relationship between increased Job Satisfaction and age: Higher pay. Higher positions. Increased job security. Greater job commitment. Keys to Improving Job Satisfaction: Increase intrinsic aspects of work. Increasing the number of opportunities for independence, responsibility, and for advancement and promotion. Working conditions and professional interpersonal relationships are kept positive. Dangers of not attaining Job Satisfaction: Career Crisis. Financial Problems. Social Problems. Psychological Problems |
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Term
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Definition
| Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Physiological. Safety. Love/belonging. Esteem. Self-actualization. ERG Theory and the 3 equal needs. Existence. Relatedness. Growth. Difference between Maslow's Hierarchy and ERG. In ERG Theory, a person can "regress" to a lower level called the "frustration-regression principle" |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Primary Prevention Directed toward the general population 2. Secondary Prevention that aims to detect diseases before they reach an advanced stage. Happens primarily among groups who are more at risk than other groups for diseases 3. Tertiary Prevention directed toward individuals already diagnosed with a disease. Goal is to lessen or diminish negative effects of the disease |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Substance Abuse: Misuse or overuse of drugs that leads to social impairments 2. Distinct (but undoubtedly overlapping) issue from the physiological consequences of drug use 3. Distinct from substance dependence, which is characterized by physiological and behavioral symptoms 4. Tolerance: A need for increased amounts of a substance to achieve the desired effects 5. Withdrawal: Physical symptoms such as tremors that occur when the individual abstains from the use of a substance Social aspects of drug use and abuse 1. Social Cognitive Learning (i.e., observational learning) 2. Classical Conditioning: a person can associate a specific stimulus with taking the drug, and that can lead to cravings when a person encounters the stimulus later Demographics of abusers 1. They are more likely to be men (5.9 percent of women, five times as many men) 2. Among women, Native Americans are overrepresented, while married women (ages 18 to 49) are under-represented Barriers to treatment for women 1. Women may be less likely to seek treatment due to having children and not being able to access childcare |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. The intentional taking of one's own life Statistics 1. Third leading cause of death among children between the ages of 10-14, adolescents between the ages of 15-19, and young adults between the ages of 20-24 2. Adolescent men are more likely to die of attempted Suicide than adolescent women 3. Suicide rates are steadily increasing in adolescent males though African-American adolescent males have a lower Suicide rate than White adolescent males 4. Of every 100,000 people ages 65 and older, 14.3 died by Suicide, which is higher than the national average of 10.9 5. Non-Hispanic White men ages 85 or older were the most likely of all groups to die from Suicide at a rate of 17.8 per 100,000 6. The highest rates of Suicide occurred among non-Hispanic Whites, American Indians, and Alaska Natives 7. The lowest rates of Suicide occurred among non-Hispanic Blacks, Asian and Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics 8. Suicide attempts are much more common than completed Suicides, especially amongst females Risk factors 1. Depression 2. Substance-related disorders 3. Prior Suicide attempt 4. Living in a household with firearms 5. Family violence 6. Socioeconomic status 7. Middle to high SES are more likely to commit suicide than low SES |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Anychange in an individual's behaviors, attitudes, or cognitions that is due to pressure from other people. Types of Social Influence: 1. Normative- change through social pressure from the majority of people in the social group. 2. Informational- new information conflicts with personal beliefs, behaviors, attitudes. 3. Interpersonal- change in a person's attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors due to another person or group of people directly demanding the change. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. "The state of an advanced industrial society in which a lot of goods are bought and sold" 2. "When too much attention is given to buying and owning things" 3. May be hurtful to mental health, due to the illusion that material things can provide true solace for inner discontent 4. Creates needs in consumers and promises their fulfillment 5. Related concept of affluenza: "affluence" (wealth) plus "influenza" (flu) 6. Consumer Psychology studies consumer behavior 7. Psychological persuasion as a basic principle of advertising 8. Several psychological concepts utilized by marketing companies, including social influence concepts and symbols 9. Consumer identifies with symbols portrayed and buys the merchandise advertised 10. One of the results of Consumerism and affluenza is shopping compulsion in the doomed pursuit of a cure for inner emptiness 11. A variety of marketing techniques available to marketing companies, including personality models and surveys 12. Ethical Consumerism attempt to redirect consumer to purchase ethically made goods and acquire a sense of balance and respect for self and environment |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A model of social behavior used to explain rebellious behavior.Characteristics.1. People are motivationally aroused by a perceived threat to, or loss of, a behavioral freedom; results in state of anxiety, resistance, and urge to restore lost freedom.2. Individual may behave in a manner that is in direct contradiction to the rules that control or prohibit the lost behavioral freedom (rebellion, protest, demonstration).3. Behavior-specific, not involving behavioral freedoms other than those lost or threatened. Application 1. Results in an increase in the perceived attractiveness of whatever behavioral freedom is lost or threatened 2. Most likely to occur when a person is coerced or pressured to accept a particular point of view or attitude |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes or beliefs, so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available William McGuire 1. Originally described Inoculation Theory in 1961 2. Showed that people are vulnerable to an assault on cultural truisms Uses for Attitude Inoculation 1. Political campaigns 2. Public Health Initiatives |
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Term
| Elaboration Likelihood Model |
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Definition
| 1. The probability that an individual will either elaborate (e.g., think about, analyze, draw out implications) the information contained in communication or attend instead to peripheral cues surrounding the message’s delivery (e.g., the attractiveness of the message source, speed or intensity of the presentation, setting and circumstances in which messages are presented) Central Route to Persuasion 1. Used when Elaboration Likelihood is high 2. Means that people are able to process the information presented and are highly motivated to do so 3. More durable and more likely to influence behavior Peripheral Route to Persuasion 1. Used when Elaboration Likelihood is low 2. Means that people do not have the ability or the motivation to pay attention to the message 3. Persuaded on the basis of factors unrelated to the nature or quality of the content of a persuasive message, such as who is providing the message or the length of the arguments Differences between Central and Peripheral Route through advertising methods 1. Some advertisements have professionals in the field describe the usefulness of their product and compare it to the effectiveness of other products (central route) 2. Other advertisements may not describe the usefulness of their product, but instead are intended to make people laugh, or have a positive emotional response, while viewing the promotion of the product (peripheral route) |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Jury Selection, aka voir dire, is process of picking jurors 2. Attorneys naturally desire jurors that will favor one's own case 3. Attorneys have sought scientific Jury Selection processes to assist them Evidence for scientific Jury Selection 1. There is little evidence for a general relationship between jury behavior and individual traits 2. Some evidence for specific traits and specific case attitudes a. Ex 1: Jury member sex is generally unreliable predictor or verdict, but is a factor in sexual assault cases b. Ex 2: Race is factor in so much as it relates to the similarity of the race of the accused and the jury member andseriousness of the crime 3. Specific personality traits have some bearing on verdict a. Ex. authoritarianism, belief in a just world, and locus of control 4. More variance is accounted for with personality concepts such as legal personality and evaluating specific legal attitudes 5. Measures of bias and juror attitudes increase amount of variance accounted for to 21 percent a. This is even better when the attitudes measures are specific to the type of trial or case Jury Selection is important because 1. Jurors are influenced by a variety of factors not intended by the facts of the case a. Pre-trial statements, defendant characteristics, eye-witness testimony (even when discredited) |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A term used in social psychology, referring to the attraction between people, which leads to friendships, and romantic relationships Key factors 1. Proximity: The closer we are in physical proximity to a person the greater the chances we will get to know that person 2. Familiarity: The more time we spend with a person, the more at ease we are with them 3. Beauty: The more attractive we find a person, the more likely we are to want to get to know that person Key principles 1. Similarity: We like others whose personalities are similar to our own 2. Complimentarity: We are attracted to those with personality traits different ours 3. Similarity is stronger than complimentarity; evidence of this in terms of similar interests, ages, education, race, religion, height, intelligence, and SES 4. Matching: Partners more likely to stay together when they perceive each other to have similar level of attractiveness, and SES 5. Reciprocity: We are more likely to be attracted to someone who is attracted to us, unless they have objectionable qualities; we tend to dislike people when we feel that they dislike us Application 1. Social Exchange Theory: There are costs and benefits in a relationship; attraction diminishes when costs outweigh rewards 2. People tend to describe interpersonal attraction in terms of a dichotomous like/dislike judgment, when it is really multidimensional; mixed-feelings |
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