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| He developed 1. The systems model of human development Bioecological Model 1. Emphasizes that human development is dynamic, interactive process bioecological model-development in social environments of varying degrees of closeness to individual and interconnectedness Microsystem 1. The activities, roles, and interactions of an individual in that person’s immediate setting Mesosystem 1. The interrelationships connect various elements of the microsystem (parent-teacher conference) Exosystem 1. The social settings or organizations beyond the child’s immediate experience that affect the child Macrosystem 1. The laws, values, and customs of the society in which the individual lives Chronosystem 1. The ways in which all of these systems interrelate to each other across time |
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| Life Expectancy – 76.5 years (According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census in 2000) Differences in Life Expectancies between females and males, among various racial and ethnic groups, and between social classes 1. White males have a Life Expectancy of 75 years 2. Females have a Life Expectancy of almost 80 years Female hormones may guard them from high blood pressure and heart problems. Less likely than men to have a violent death or accident. Less likely to suffer from the effects of smoking, drinking, and other health hazards 3. African Americans have an average life expectancy of 68 years for males and 75 for women 4. Life Expectancies have been rising and are higher in more affluent areas. Vulnerability to death varies over the life span1. Infants most vulnerable to premature death.Infant mortality rates in the United States has dropped significantly. Currently about 7 out of every 1,000 live births. Infant deaths are commonly connected with problems during the time surrounding birth and congenital abnormalities 2. Leading cause of death among preschool and school-age children is accidents, including car accidents, poisonings, falls, fires, and drowning 3. Leading causes of death among adolescents are accidents, homicides, and suicides 4. Leading causes of death among young adults are HIV infection, accidents, and cancers 5. 45-64 age group, the onset of chronic diseases becomes the leading cause of death 6. Chronic conditions rises consistently with age, which raises overall death rates significantlyHeart disease accounts for 35 percent of deaths among adults 65 and older, followed by cancers and cerebrovascular diseases or strokes |
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Definition
| Occurs only 1. In women 2. Results from a missing X Chromosome Development 1. Abnormal secondary sexual characteristic (e.g. no menstruation, no ovulation) 2. Develop short stature and webbed necks 3. Cardiovascular anomalies 4. A shield-shaped chest with wide-spaced nipples 5. An increased carrying angle of the arms 6. Mental retardation and learning disorders common Also known as 1. Bonnevie-Ullrich Syndrome 2. Monosomy X Treatment includes 1. Hormonal treatment 2. Surgical removal of neck webbing, and to correct cardiovascular issues |
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Definition
| Results from 1. An extra X chromosome (XXY) 2. Occurs only in men Men withthis syndrome 1. Tend to be taller 2. Somewhat lower intelligence scores (IQ around 90), andhave abnormal development of secondary sex characteristics (e.g., partialbreast development, small testicles, high pitched voices) 3. Have smaller testicles and are sterile 4. Typically marry, but unable to have children Effects 1. One in every 500 to 1,000 males |
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Definition
| This syndrome is 1. A recessive disorder that occurs in about 1 of 10,000 to 15,000 people 2. Typically caused by a mutation of the 15th pair of chromosomes Hypothalamus 1. The regulation of food and hunger does not function properly Symptoms include 1. Insatiable hunger 2. Delayed motor skills and cognitive abilities 3. Low muscletone 4. Short stature 5. Incomplete sexual development May 1. Have mild mental retardation 2. Hoard objects 3. Be repetitive in speech 4. Be subject to early death likely if eating habits not controlled |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Color Blindness is a condition in which a person is unable to distinguish one color from another 2. Red-green color deficiency most common form; sex-linked (affecting only men) Problems distinguishing reds and greens 3. Blue-yellow color deficiency less common; autosomal (may affect men and women) 4. Deficiency may be partial (affecting only some shades of a color) or complete (affecting all shades of the color) 5. Genetic problem affecting approximately one in 10 men 6. Few women affected by Color Blindness 7. Testing during eye exam 8. No known treatment How it occurs 1. Color Blindness occurs when there is a problem with the color-sensing materials in certain nerve cells of the eyes 2. Cones are nerve cells containing color-sensing materials; Color Blindness occurs when one of these color pigments is missing or defective 3. Results from mutated recessive gene on the X-chromosome Genetics 1. Genotype – characteristic observable or not 2. Phenotype – observable traits |
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Definition
| 1. Involves three chromosomes on chromosome 21 (trisomy-21) 2. It is therefore an autosomal (non sex-linked) disorder Characterized by 1. Mental retardation; a broad skull, slanted eyes, physical deformities, and reduced activity Occurs in 1. About one in 800 overall births 2. Less than one in 1,000 for women under 30 3. About one in 25 risk for 45-year-old mother 4. Greater risk for mothers younger than 16 and older than 34 |
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| 1. Is a condition that affects children whose mothers drank alcohol during their pregnancies 2. Exposure to alcohol during fetal development causes brain damage 3. Infants prenatally exposed to one drink per day have double the risk of developing mental handicaps 4. One incident of binge-drinking (five or more alcoholic drinks) can also lead to FAS in certain cases Characterized by a cluster of symptoms, including 1. Facial abnormalities 2. Delayed growth 3. Impaired social skills 4. Lower than average intelligence 5. In some cases, the children have mental retardation 6. Common facial traits include widely separated eyes and a flattened nose Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE) 1. Related condition caused when a mother is drinking at least one ounce of alcohol per day during her pregnancy. 2. A child with FAE exhibits impairment in cognitive and motor abilities, but at a less severe level than a child with FAS |
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Term
| Premature Infant Development |
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Definition
| Premature birth1. Risk factor associated with prenatal development Prematurity Common Cause1. The most common of which is multiple births, in which two or more infants are born at the same time. Others causes1. Disabilities of the fetus, maternal disease, maternal smoking or other drug use, and malnutrition. Low birth weight (LBW)1. Most common indicator of prematurity Definition1. Infants born before the 37-week gestation period is considered preterm. 2. Many preterm infants have low birth weight Full-term infant who is low birth weight is considered small-for-date. 1. Fetal malnutrition is one cause for small-for-date babies. Lastly Effects1. Premature infants experience difficulties that can lead to problems later in life such as delays in social skill development and behavioral problems in school. Longitudinal study on mothers and preterm infant interactions1. Results suggest that mothers with the most vulnerable infants were able produce more positive attitudes about the child and the parenting role. 2. Finding further suggested that by age two, relatively healthy but very low birth weight infants reach a developmental status that is comparable to that of full-term infants, but which they achieve by different developmental means. |
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Definition
| 1. Any agent that a fetus is exposed to that causes a birth defect. 2. These include drugs, environmental substances, stress of the mother, and the age of the biological parents. 3. All fetuses are exposed to some type of teratogen, but not all children develop disabilities due to the agents. 4. Effects of teratogens depend on various factors, including the amount of substance, type of substance and frequency of substance. Germinal phase (first two weeks following conception) 1. Teratogens may prevent zygote from attaching to uterine wall. Embryonic period (twoweeks to eight weeks following conception) 1. A critical period of development and structural damages are most likely to occur during this time if an embryo is exposed to teratogens. Fetal period (from two months past conception until the child is born) 1. Is a critical period of organ development. Problems that occur during a critical period can be permanent |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. The preference a person has in using one hand over the other 2. Noticeable in infants 3. Observed in infants in the womb 4. Has also been demonstrated among children as young as seven months old Across the world 1. 90 percent of people are right-handed 2. Children tend to be committed to hand preference by the end of preschool years 3. More boys than girls are left-handed 4. Genetics have a strong influence |
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Term
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Definition
| Vision not well developed at birth 1. Infants are able to see colors, specifically white, green, and red 2. At four months, children can see many more colors Binocular vision 1. Capacity for depth and perception 2. Develops at about four to five months of age 3. Vision develops through critical periods Infants 1. Prefer face-like visual stimuli 2. At one month can distinguish mother’s face |
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Definition
| Perceptual development 1. Includes touch and pain, taste, hearing, smell, and vision 2. Except for vision, most infant senses are well developed at birth Touch and pain 1. First sense to develop and believed to be the most mature during first months of life 2. Infants may feel pain on first day of life, become more sensitive to pain in the days after delivery Taste 1. Newborns prefer sweet over sour and bitter 2. Can distinguish between four basic tastes (sweet, salty, bitter, and sour) 3. Also sensitive to fifth taste: umami (brothy, meaty or savory) 4. Preference shown for sweet and umami-flavored foods Hearing 1. Well developed at birth, can distinguish between new sounds and familiar sounds 2. At birth, hearing better than vision 3. From birth to 7 months, infants start narrowing down sounds to their own native language Smell 1. Well developed at birth, can differentiate the smell of a mother's milk from that of a stranger Vision 1. Not well developed at birth, but develops rapidly between two and 10 weeks 2. Peripheral vision very narrow 3. Vision develops in following order: a. Kinetic – 1 month: The ability to distinguish a three-dimensional picture from its surroundings. At two months, still lacks capacity for depth perception b. Binocular – 3 months: The infant is able to use both eyes to perceive one visual stimulus. Color perception poor until about four months c. Pictorial – 5 months: The infant recognizes depth in two-dimensional figures, such as photographs 4. Researchers assess infants' perceptual abilities by observing their reaction to various stimuli 5. From five and a half to 18 months, "Head Turn Procedure" is used to see whether a child recognizes a stimulus by turning his head in the stimulus' direction 6. Prior to five months, infants are not able to reliably turn their heads, so other observations can be made, such as eyebrow movements, eye-widening, and other body activities |
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Term
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Definition
| Reflex - movement that is not learned and involuntary in response to a stimulus. Most reflexes disappear during the first year Different types of reflexes1. Survival reflexes - biologically programmed behaviors, such as breathing, rooting, and sucking, that are related to the neonate’s ability to survive 2. Primitive reflexes - biologically programmed behaviors without immediate survival value, but which may have been associated with survival in our evolutionary past. Primitive reflexes include the Babinski Reflex, grasping Reflex, Moro Reflex, swimming Reflex, and stepping Reflex. Common Infant Reflexes1. Moro Reflex - involves the baby extending the legs, arms, and fingers, and arching the back in response to being startled. 2. Rooting Reflex - characterized by the baby turning the head, opening the mouth and beginning sucking movements in response to the baby’s check being stroked with a finger or nipple. 3. Babinski Reflex - characterized by the baby spreading out the toes and twisting the foot when the sole of the baby’s foot is stroked. 4. Grasp Reflex - the baby makes a firm fist around an object that is placed in the hand. 5. Swimming Reflex - infants will attempt to swim in a coordinated way if placed in water in a prone position |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. State of having too few nutrients for the body to work properly 2. Detrimental to people at all stages of life 3. Especially detrimental to infants still in the womb In utero 1. Human body is experiencing rapid growth; without necessary nutrients likely to experience damaging effects 2. Malnutrition can be incredibly harmful to the developing brain 3. The third trimester is a critical period for children's brain growth Damage to the brain may be permanent 4. May experience low birth weight, a slow growth rate, and impairments in social development Macronutrient Malnutrition 1. Results from a diet that contains too few calories 2. Leading cause of death of children under the age of 5 3. Most harmful during sensitive periods of development; developing fetus through age 2 Micronutrient Malnutrition 1. Deficiency of certain vitamins and/or minerals 2. Common among the poor, but present in all economic levels 3. When insufficiencies lead to iron-deficient anemia social and language development may be impeded When iron is supplemented it can improve social development, but does not show an effect an language development, thus effects of anemia on language may be permanent Maramus 1. Type of Malnutrition caused by a severe insufficiency of total calories 2. Children weigh less than 60% of recommended weight for age 3. Co-occurs with parasitic infection and chronic diarrhea making difficult to treat 4. Can lead to permanent brain damage Kwashiorkor 1. Type of severe Malnutrition caused by insufficient protein 2. Can lead to permanent brain damage |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A spontaneous, intrinsically motivated behavior in children that promotes cognitive affective development, as well as important physical, emotional, and social skills 2. Promotes growth of sensory-perceptual capabilities and endless opportunities to exercise and expand intellectual skills 3. Play becomes more interactive and social as children become older 4. According to Piaget, Play is essential to the child's full development 5. An arena in which the child experiences "assimilation of reality to the self, without coercions or sanctions (note: from adult and society)" (Piaget, 1969) Piagetian main categories of Play (three, plus a transitional one) 1. Exercise Play: A pre-symbolic, repetitive form of Play that only occur in the sensorimotor stage and is simply pleasurable to the child 2. Symbolic Play: The expression of the self by means of symbols (other than language) that the child constructs and directs to his wishes a. Symbolic Play fulfills the function of assimilation of reality to the self through a variety of ways, including imitation 3. Games with Rules: Games such as marbles enhance social development 4. Games of Construction: A transitional phase; initially heavily symbolic, later evolving into clearer adaptations, such as mechanical constructions, as well as solutions to problems and spontaneous creations Common stages of Play 1. Solitary (or Independent) Play: Until about nine months; characterized as simple motor activity, completed by a solitary child a. Infants are fully absorbed in experiencing and processing their self-centered world 2. Parallel Play: Under and around 2 years of age; each child playing independently, although in proximity to each other 3. Associative Play: 3 to 4 years; symbolic play; children are playing together a. More mature child may emerge as the leader of the common activity. Younger playmates do not usually question his/her authority 4. Dramatic Play (same age): An aspect of Associative Play; Children pretend, imitate, role Play, and learn to interact 5. Make-Believe Play (same age): Another type of symbolic Play, during which children might imagine themselves to be other people or creatures a. Ordinary objects may assume special qualities b. Children develop language, reasoning, and memory skills. Children who make-believe Play tend to be more adept at language, reasoning, and memory than their peers 6. Cooperative Play: Between age 4 and 5; children may exchange ideas about the game they are engaged in a. Children are aware of their role in the game, but rules may be lax b. Teaches social skills, the rights and property of others, and cooperation c. Communication is crucial in this type of play. Children develop the desire to share their toys to carry on the Play activity 7. Moving across the stages of Play may vary for different children, based on their upbringing and personality traits Signs for concern while playing include wandering and hovering 1. Wandering: A child will move aimlessly from activity to activity, without appearing to meaningfully interact with any task 2. Hovering: Exhibited when a child stands near other children who are playing, but does not engage with them 3. Parents advised to seek professional consultation if they witness these tendencies in their children, as they may signal the presence of social problems (Kail et al., 2007) |
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Term
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Definition
| From birth 1. Infants are prone to cry First cry after birth 1. Is a sign that air has entered into their lungs Cries 1. Can be indicators of central nervous system functioning 2. Infants develop cries to vocalize different needs Three to four infant cries 1. Rhythmic cry- most common (infant mayuse other cry and then return to rhythmic cry) 2. Hunger cry- rhythmic cry may overlap with hunger cry 3. Anger cry- loud in nature 4. Pain cry- preliminary cry followed breath-holding Mothers 1. Most responsive to the hunger and pain cries 2.Tend to be more responsive to the cries than fathers are 3. Mothers and fathers are equally more discriminating of the cries of their own baby than of other infants Stress 1. May be a relationship between stress in expectant mothers and crying in newborns 2. Infants exposed to stress prenatally demonstrate more crying/fussing behavior |
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Term
| Childhood Sleep Disorders |
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Definition
| Types and occurrences 1. Includes sleep deprivation, night terrors, sleepwalking, sleep talking, sleep-onset association disorder, and primary nocturnal enuresis 2. Occurs most often in the preschool and school-age years 3. Usually a family history for the disorder 4. Male patients outnumber females by a ratio of four to one Sleep deprivation 1. When the child is not getting enough sleep 2. This is a common problem and can lead to more serious problems Sleep terror disorder (night terrors) 1. Occurs approximately 90 minutes into sleep, during the "deep sleep" stage 2. Child suddenly sits bolt upright and screams 3. Inconsolable for up to 30 minutes 4. Generally occurs in children 3 to 8 years of age 5. Episodes rarely last longer than five minutes and are not remembered in the morning 6. Retrograde amnesia regarding the episodes Sleep walking disorder and sleep talking 1. Involves the child sitting up in bed with eyes open but is "unseeing." 2. Sleep walking and sleep talking tend to substitute for sleep terror during the school-age years 3. These disorders occur in the school-age child and are more common in boys than girls 4. Movements and speech are rambling and unfocused 5. Usually conditions resolve spontaneously Sleep-onset association disorder: child or infant just does not sleep 1. Child will not go to sleep unless he or she is with the parent, is being nursed, or is receiving other various comforts from an outside source Nocturnal enuresis or bed-wetting 1. One of the most prevalent and persistent sleep problems in children 2. Primary enuresis - child has never been persistently dry through the night 3. Secondary enuresis - the child starts wetting the bed after one year of continence. Primary enuresis is more common and less likely to have a pathologic cause |
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Term
| Attention Deficit- Hyperactivity Disorder |
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Definition
| 1. Inattention 2. Hyperactivity 3. Impulsivity a. Generally diagnosed after age 7 years old b. The traits of ADHD usually lessen for children as they develop into adulthood. However, many adults continue to have difficulty with some symptoms Most often correspond with ADHD 1. Oppositional Defiant Disorder 2. Conduct Disorder 3. These are diagnosed in almost 50 percent of clinic-referred children with ADHD a.Diagnosed more often in boys b. Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter implicated in ADHD c. ADHD is treated using both behavioral techniques and medication d. Stimulant medication is the most common treatment for ADHD today Medications used to treat ADHD include stimulants such as 1. Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Metadate, Concerta) 2. D-amphetamine (Dexedrine, Dextrostat) 3. Pemoline (Cylert) are also helpful in the majority of cases (Barlow & Durand, 2005) Alternative medication 1. Strattera is a non-stimulant medication used to treat ADHD 2. Antidepressants, such as Wellbutrin (bupropion), and imipramine |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A pervasive developmental disorder Characterized by 1. Impairment in social interaction, and communication Individuals may experience stereotyped repetitive behaviors 1. Rocking 2. Swaying Signs 1. Must be present before a child is age three for a diagnosis to be met Diagnosis 1. The Embedded Figures Test may be used The cause of Autism 1. Has been related to genetic factors 2. The first four years of a child’s life are critical Treatment 1. Behavior therapy accompanied with one-on-one attention: children are praised and rewarded immediately after learning appropriate behaviors, such as direct eye contact during play Learning language 1. Appears to be a key factor for children combating Autism 2. Children may be able to learn how to communicate meaningfully and act in socially appropriate ways Differentiated from: Childhood Disintegrative Disorder 1. A pervasive developmental disorder in which normal development occurs for the first two years of life and is followed by significant loss in cognitive abilities, social skills, and motor function. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Is a chronic disease in which the body does not produce enough insulin Two major forms of Diabetes 1. Type I Diabetes (formally known as insulin dependent or juvenile Diabetes) treated with insulin 2. Type II Diabetes is associated with obesity and unhealthy lifestyle Treatment 1. Includes healthy eating and physical activity Long-term effects include 1. Damage tothe cardiovascular system, kidneys, and eyes. Without treatment, Diabetes can result in a coma, which can be life-threatening Common symptoms include 1. Excessive thirst 2. Urination Risk factors include 1. Genetic predisposition 2. Being overweight There is an increased number of children being diagnosed with TypeII Diabetes |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. 8% of adolescents suffer from moderate to severe depression 2. 15-20% of college students report having had a period of serious depression 3. 2% of children meet the criteria for major depression Females 1. Are more susceptible to depression than males (about twice as many female adolescents depression diagnoses than male adolescents) Various psychological variables associated with depression 1. Family issues, such as having financial problems 2. Emotionally unavailable parents 3. Discord within the family 4. Having a parent who is depressed increases children’s risk of also becoming depressed Risk Factors 1. Loss of a loved one 2. Lack of a best friend 3. Experience of rejection Depression is likely linked to a combination of risk factors that interact: 1. Biological 2. Psychological 3. Social-systems variables Successful treatments 1. Psychotherapy 2. CBT 3. Interpersonal therapy 4. Antidepressant medication 5. A combination of medication and psychotherapy is best |
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Term
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Definition
| Peer relationships 1. Crucial to development 2. Accepted or rejected by peers Several groups of acceptance 1. Popular Children most liked and tend to be friendly and able to offer positive remarks about other people 2. Controversial Children liked by some of their peers and disliked by others 3. Aggressive-rejected Children who are consistently disliked by their peers 4. Withdrawn-rejected Children who are consistently disliked by their peers 5. Neglected Children neither liked nor disliked, but remain unnoticed Adolescents 1. Tend to evaluate each other more negatively, which can worsen an unpopular child's social situation 2. Continued social difficulty can have the effect of negatively impacting children’s academics, behaviors, and social skills 3. May result in psychological maladjustment for some individuals, even as they age into adulthood 4. Popular children are more outgoing, communicative, cooperative and generally more academically successful Girls 1. Exhibit an "enabling style" that increases intimacy and equality by expressing agreement, making suggestions, and providing support 2. Female friendships facilitate intimacy and emotionality Boys 1. Tend to exhibit a "restricting style" that is characterized by bragging, contradicting, and interrupting 2. Male friendships are based on shared activities and interests |
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Definition
| 1. Relationships can act as a buffer against stress 2. More buffers results in less perceived stress 3. Quality of buffers is more important than quantity of buffers 4. Person must perceive buffers as valuable in order to be effective 5. Relationships are the most effective buffers 6. Relationships help redefine or reframe a stressful situation and enable greater sense of hope |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Developed the theory of child development using a constructivist approach 2. Based on social contexts/social interactions which emphasized construction of knowledge through social interactions Cognitive development 1. Unfolds as children experiment with the world Culture's tools 1. Refer to common items or symbolic systems found in one's culture 2. The use of these tools change the way we organize and think about the world and cognition can only be understood in the context of culture Zone of proximal development (ZPD) 1. A concept that children's cognitive growth develops through participation in activities slightly beyond their competence with the help of adults or older children Scaffolding 1. The progressive structuring of tasks by parents or others so that the level of task difficulty is appropriate Private speech 1. Children's internal language used to direct their behavior Self talk 1. Allows children to advance cognitively 2. Seen in ages 4-7 |
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Term
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Definition
| General 1. Increased hormone production in adolescence produces dramatic growth spurt 2. Puberty- biological change that ultimately results in reaching sexual maturity and becoming capable of reproduction Rate of Growth 1. Girls - The peak rate of growth for height is just under 12 years 2. Boys - The peak rate of growth is 13.4 years Varying advantages and disadvantages to Early Maturation 1. Early maturing girls and late maturing boys tend to experience the most difficulties 2. Girls May be teased for the few years that they are ahead. Often less popular than her prepubescent classmates. Depression and anxiety are likely. Tend to make friends with older peer groups. Body image problems and more conflicts with parents 3. Boys Positive psychological adjustment overall: better scholastic performance, better self-image, greater popularity, more socially competent, self-assured, and attractive. Earlier involvement in substance use and other deviant behaviors in comparison to boys who mature "on time" |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. The attainment of sexual maturity in males and females 2. Prior to puberty, boys and girls are typically similar in height, weight, and strength; these commonalities allow them to compete in sports at an equal level 3. Females usually begin puberty between ages 10-12 years 4. Males usually begin puberty between ages 12-16 years for males Females 1. Generally enter into puberty earlier than males 2. There is a period in which girls may be taller and weigh more than their male peers 3. Weight gained by females in puberty is mostly comprised of body fat Males 1. Gain muscle mass and increase in strength during puberty Early physical maturation has mixed effects 1. Higher academic achievement and independence 2. Lower self-esteem, poorer image, and more conflicts with parents 3. Boys who physically mature early: enjoy a more positive psychological adjustment overall, better scholastic performance, better self image and great popularity; however, early maturing boys may exhibit greater behavior problems 4. Girls who physically maturation early: mixed effects, including higher academic achievement and independence, but lower self-esteem, poorer body image, and more conflicts with parents |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Hall (1904) proclaimed that adolescence is a time of significant emotional turmoil 2. Subsequent research has not supported his conclusion, in that it appears that only a small proportion of adolescents experience a period of "storm and stress" Storm and Stress 1. Characterized as conflicts with parents, mood disruptions, and risky behaviors 2. Currently, psychologists do not accept the Storm-and-Stress Theory as universal Adolescence 1. Period of heightened vulnerability to some forms of psychopathology 2. Teenagers experience greater pressure, face new challenges, physical maturation, development of new cognitive skills, dating, changes in family dynamics, and more complex school and social demands 3. Research has found that most adolescents are not emotionally disturbed and do not develop serious problem behaviors like drug abuse or chronic delinquency 4. Significant mental health problems are found in just about 20 percent of adolescents These problems may have started before adolescence |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Crystallized Intelligence - information collected throughout the lifespan Remains intact with aging and may even improve overall 2. Fluid Intelligence - ability to think abstractly and the capacities for problem solving in novel situations Peaks in adolescence and gradually declines 3. Middle adulthood - Maximum performance of cognitive abilities 4. In summary, cognitive abilities do not globally decrease as people age Some cognitive abilities remain intact, or even improve, while others decline5. This can be seen in the "classic aging pattern," which involves a decline in performance skills with verbal skills remaining intact 6. Intelligence quotient - (IQ) a standardized measure of intelligence IQ scores can be influential in a person's life as they can be used as a predictor for his or her ability to succeed in different situations 7. Synchrony effect - older adults tend to do better when tested in the morning |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. IQ above 130 2. Combination of above-average ability, creativity, and task commitment 3. Giftedness can be determined by advanced language skills by 18 months of age 4. Gifted children are highly curious and motivated to learn Linda Silverman at Gifted Development Center 1. Used the Characteristics of Giftedness Scale to identify gifted children Identifiers for Gifted Children 1. Rapid learning, extensive vocabulary, good memory, long attention span, perfectionism, preference for older companions, excellent sense of humor, early interest in reading, strong ability with puzzles and mazes, maturity, and perseverance Assessing giftedness 1. The Stanford-Binet, which has a high ceiling of about 180, is a more appropriate test for giftedness than the WISC-IV, which has a ceiling of only 150 |
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Term
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Definition
| About 1. Mental Retardation: Disorder characterized by significantly subaverage intellectual functioning and self-help skills 2. Onset prior to age 18 Four levels 1. MILD: IQ between 50 and 70; able to function almost independently, development tends to be delayed, typically able to reach a third- to sixth-grade level of education 2. MODERATE: IQ between 35 and 55; problems developing language and motor skills, able to reach a second grade level of education 3. SEVERE: IQ between 20-40; involves more developmental impairment 4. PROFOUND: IQ scores below 20; limited to no speech and significant impairment in motor skills, usually require 24-hour supervision, although some may be able to learn basic self-care |
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Term
| Memory Decline with Aging |
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Definition
| Aging 1. Aging has been shown to affect various memory processes, some more than others 2. Cognitive abilities do not globally decline with age 3. The classic aging pattern involves a decline in performance skills with verbal skills remaining intact Sensory memory 1. Very brief visual or auditory memory that holds sensory input for a few seconds Short-term memory 1. The limited-capacity storage that holds things that are "in mind" at the moment, changes little with age in terms of capacity; also referred to as recent memory Working memory 1. Working memory is the active process of holding information so as to do complex tasks, such as reasoning, comprehension, and learning and does decline with aging. Long-term memory 1. The warehouse for facts and images, past experiences, and it appears to undergo some decline with age, though decline occurs more slowly; also referred to as remote memory Episodic memories 1. Recollections of past events, or episodes Semantic memories 1. Factual knowledge that is learned 2. Appears to be largely unaffected by age; however, episodic memory does appear to decline with age Explicit memory 1. Information that is held in one's conscious mind and that is easy to retrieve Implicit memory 1. Unconscious information, which includes learned behaviors, such as riding a bicycle Metamemory 1. The ability to reflect on how memory works 2. Demonstrated in the use of rehearsal, repetition, and other purposeful methods of increasing one's memory (Feldman, 2006) The use of mnemonic devices(memory strategy) 1. Benefits older adult’s more than younger adults Seattle Longitudinal Study 1. Approximately 40 percent of adults with prior cognitive declines have demonstrated marked, positive change after going through a cognitive training program |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Jean Piaget, developmental psychologist: The realization by infants that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight, independently of their involvement with them 2. Very young infants rely heavily on senses and for them, objects exist only when they can perceive them or act on them 3. By acquiring Object Permanence, infants are able to maintain a mental image (representation) of the object, even when is not present; this enhanced capacity is used to explain separation protest and stranger anxiety 4. Critical accomplishment of the sensorimotor (birth to 2) stage: a. Up to four to eight months, infants do not look for a toy if covered with a cloth b. Between eight and 12 months, they are able to find the toy even if covered, but continue to rely heavily on perceptions and actions to know an object c. By 18 months, an infant usually is capable of mentally representing these invisible moves and is able to find the object in its final location d. This is when the concept of Object Permanence is fully mastered |
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Term
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Definition
| Research supports 1. That individuals are able to recall memories as early as the first year of life Infantile amnesia 1. Refers to the inability to recall information before 3-4 years of age 2. Loss of memory may not be permanent The ability to remember is based on three factors 1. The nature of the event 2. How often the event is experienced 3. The ability of cues to remind the person The ability of adults to remember early memories 1. Is related to the influence of language 2. Memory retrieval is influenced by language 3. Young children have few words to help store memories 4. Adults may have difficulty retrieving early memories because the early memory was stored with few language cues |
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Term
| Vygotsky's Model of Cognitive Development |
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Definition
| Origin 1. Lev Vygotsky, a Russian sociocultural theorist, proposed that children’s cognitive development largely depends on culture, relationships, and language. 2. Learning is accomplished through the interaction 3. Teaching relationships may be within the family, community, or school Terms and ideas 1. Reciprocal relationship – a relationship formed between student and teacher involves informing and changing each Other The lessons learned depends largely on the culture in which the child is raised Lessons are communicated through language 2.Scaffolding – a minimalist level of teaching in which the teacher gives no more or less information than required for the student to complete a task 3. Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP) – The ZPD is "the area between the level of performance a child can achieve when working independently and a higher level of performance that is possible when working under the guidance or direction of more skilled adults or peers" (Kail& Cavanaugh, 2007). 4. Private speech or self-talk – a youngster may verbalize instructions about how to complete a task Private speech- method children use to instruct and regulate their behavior Essential for Cognitive Development, as it helps integrate language with thought, is used to guide actions, and may aid the completion of difficult or confusing tasks 5. Pretend play – often used by children, helps them to learn how to behave in the world. Montessori method 1. Vygotsky's theory influential in the development of the Montessori method 2. The reciprocal teaching method: is often used in instructing reading comprehension Teachers first educate students about learning strategies Students are able to teach others what they have learned 3. Cooperative learning; children are grouped together and asked to interact to achieve a common goal The more skilled students are able to inform and instruct the less experienced ones |
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| Adaptation, Assimilation, and Accommodation |
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Definition
| Jean Piaget 1. Developed a theory of cognitive-development highlighting the basic processes of Assimilation, Accommodation, and Adaptation (as well as Organization and Equilibration) Schemata 1. Piaget's term for cognitive structures that process information, perceptions, and experiences 2. Schematas change as the person grows via adaptation 3. Schematas organize patterns of behavior that people use as a guide for thinking about or act in a particular situation Adaptation 1. The process by which organisms change and adapt, so that they will be more successful in a particular environment 2. Resulting from the complementary dynamics of assimilation and accommodation, involves changes to the individual's schemata Assimilation 1. The process of incorporating new information into existing schemata Accommodation 1. The process that requires schemata to change when a new object or event does not fit Organization 1. Refers to the natural ability of the mind to organize its processes and material in complex and integrated ways Equilibration 1. The innate drive toward an optimal state of balance between people's schemata and their environment (Duncan, 1995) 2. Involves both assimilation and accommodation |
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| 1. The rapid decline in cognitive functioning and coping ability that occurs 1-5 years before death Key Figure1. Robert Kleemeier Reflects the individual’s declining health status 1. Which leads to lessened ability to cope adequately with environmental demands because of lowered ability to integrate stimuli 2. Decline in intelligence may be due to failing health 3. Others studies suggest that depression may cause individual to withdraw or become unmotivated to do well on standardized intelligence tests, despite no change in cognitive ability |
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| 1. Emphasized a universal nature of languagedevelopment Nativist theory of language development 1. Suggeststhat human beings have an inborn language generating mechanism, Language Acquisition Device (LAD) 1. Emphasizesbiologically programmed capacities in language acquisition 2. Chomsky’s theory is speakers of a language cancomprehend and produce an unlimited set of sentences 3. Children are preprogrammed to learn language and are born with a cognitive structure specificallydeveloped to learn language linguistic universals 4. Similarities in thefeatures of grammatical relations between subject and predicate, and thepossibility of posing questions, giving commands, and expressing negatives World’s languages 1. Differ in their surfacecharacteristics, but have basic similarities in their composition (deepstructure) Surface structure 1. Actual sound or wordsequence Deep structure 1.Intent of the sentence. Transformational grammar (preverbal, intuitiverules) 1. Turn deep structure into surface structure |
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Definition
| This ability has been linked with several strengths such as 1. Cognitive flexibility 2. Creativity 3. Attentiveness Bilingual speakers have greater metalinguistic understanding, which is knowledge of grammatical rules Code-switching 1. Tendency of bilingual speakers to transfer between their first and second language Children in the United States’ school system with a first language other than English, several alternatives are available. 1. Immersion- English is only language used in class 2.Bilingual education- children are taught in their first language, and English Bilingual education may be preferable and more academically successful Neural plasticity helps young children manage learning two languages more easily than older children and adults |
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| Language Development (Stages of Language Acquisition) |
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Definition
| Children in different cultures progress through similar stages of language acquisition. Stage Progression . Crying- Infants produce several distinct patterns of crying including a hunger cry, an anger cry, and a pain cry. 2. Cooing- Begins between six to eight weeks, which are vowel-like sounds like "oooh" and "aaaah." 3. Babbling –Begins between three and four months of age. Involves repeating consonant-vowel combination like "dada" or "baba" again and again4. Word Comprehension - At about nine months of age, babies begin to understand words such as "no" or the baby's name. 4. Babbling: 3-4 months consonant sounds produced. 4-6 months babbling stage involves repeated consonant-vowel combinations (e.g., dada, baba) is thought to contain all the phonemes (smallest unit of sound in a language such as the letter "b") that are present across languages. 5. Echolalia - Begins at about nine to 10 months of age and involves deliberate imitation of sounds without comprehension. At about nine to 10 months babies are able to string together sounds in a pattern 6. Holophrastic speech - The infant speaks its first meaningful word at about 1 year of age. At around 18 months, infant experiences a vocabulary spurt, occurring after mastery of about 30 to 50 words. Mistakes in speech: Overextension and Underextension. Underextension- infant uses a word such as "kitty" only to describe their own household cat. Overextension- infant uses one word to describe a wide range of objects or events. 7. Telegraphic speech - Comes when the toddler puts two words together to express one idea. Occurs between 18-24 months; by 24 months average vocabulary is 200 words. |
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| 1. Swiss biologist, developmental psychologist, and "genetic epistemologist" 2. Most known for his Theory of Cognitive Development: a. Infants born with innate reflexes, which change into cognitive constructs, or "schemata," through active interaction with immediate environment b. Schema: "cognitive blueprint" guiding subsequent behavior c. Cognitive schemata formed and modified via two main dynamics: (1) Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment based on preexisting cognitive structures (2) Accommodation is the process of changing and enriching cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment d. Adaptation: Result of Assimilation and Accommodation, involves adjustments to schemata, which have to change to incorporation new knowledge e. Equilibration: The natural tendency to maintain homeostasis at the cognitive level f. Organization: Frames cognitive structures, guides and supports Adaptation Stages of Cognitive Development 1. Sensori-motor (0 to 2): Largely pre-symbolic; child interacts with physical world, acquiring object permanence at around seven months (some sources may report a range from three to eight months). Toward age 2: learning to speak, gaining ability to use symbols. PLAY: Exercise Play (a pre-symbolic, repetitive form of play that is simply pleasurable to the child) 2. Pre-operational (2 to 7): Acquires more symbolic ability through language; egocentric, non-reversible thinking, centration (focusing attention on only one aspect of an object), magical thinking (a cardboard plane may fly) and animism (objects are endowed with life-like or human properties); unable to conserve. PLAY: Symbolic Play (expresses self by means of symbols other than language) MORAL DEVELOPMENT PHASE: Heteronomous (from age 4 to 7): Rules absolute and unchangeable, punishment fits consequences of behavior, intentions of the actor not relevant 3. Concrete operational (7 to 11): Thinking becomes reversible, less egocentric and de-centered. Engages in Games with Rules, e.g., marbles, enhancing social development. Develops ability to conserve in seven ways: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume. Ability for seriation (ability to arrange objects according to color, size, shape etc.) and classification (sets of objects are grouped into classes, according to certain characteristics, and sets may include sub-sets) acquired. Manipulation of symbols for concrete applications. PLAY (toward end of this stage): Games of Construction, (e.g., mechanical constructions). MORAL DEVELOPMENT PHASE: Autonomous (from age 7 or 8 years on). Rules are made by people, therefore alterable. Intentions of the actor most important in determining punishment 4. Formal operational (11 to adulthood): Ability to use symbols to think abstract concepts. Temporary return to egocentric thinking. Most often fully achieved only in adulthood |
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Term
| Bem's Gender Schema Theory |
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Definition
| Gender Schema Theory – Sandra Bem 1. People vary in the degree that they process information relative to gender, according to gender-stereotypes Gender Schema: a "cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender;" for example, a young child may learn to associate that playing with dolls is feminine and playing with cars is masculine 1. Organizing play according to gender would involve using one's Gender Schema 2. Various cultures have different input as to what is masculine and what is feminine 3. People who readily categorize information by gender classification, in a manner that is popular with their culture, are said to be sex-typed. (For example, a woman would be considered sex-typed if she attributed many qualities to herself that are considered feminine in her culture.) On the other hand, a woman who attributed many masculine and feminine qualities to herself, according to her culture, would be labeled androgynous in such a culture 4. According to Bem, children can be encouraged to be androgynous in their Gender Schema if parents want to avoid teaching stereo-typing 5. Individuals who attribute few masculine and feminine characteristics to themselves are said to be "aschematic" |
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| Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development |
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Definition
| 1. Trust versus mistrust. First stage of identity crisis. Draws from relationship with primary caregivers during infancy. Crisis between seeing existence as reliable or untrustworthy. Successful resolution leads to optimism. Failure at resolution leads to pervasive suspicion 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt Second stage of identity crisis. Draws from relationship with caregivers during toddler years. Crisis between independence and dependency for decision making. Successful resolution leads to ability to be self-directed. Failure at resolution leads to pervasive dependency upon others. 3. Initiative versus guilt Third stage of identity crisis. Draws from relationship with family. Crisis between having fortitude to do what one wants or feeling guilty for doing so at times. Successful resolution leads to regard for the rights and feelings of others. Failure at resolution leads to self-centered decision making and rejections by others. 4. Industry versus inferiority Fourth stage of identity crisis. Draws from relationships with teachers and peers in school and other community figures. Crisis between feeling competent and worrying over inadequacy. Successful resolution leads to a sense of self as capable. Failure at resolution leads to paralyzing low esteem. 5. Identity versus role confusion Fifth stage of identity crisis. Draws from relationships with peers. Crisis between who one is and what is expected from roles in society. Successful resolution leads to integrated goals and dreams as well as solid identity. Failure at resolution leads to unstable sense of self and erratic choices in life. 6. Intimacy versus isolation Sixth stage of identity crisis. Draws from relationships with spouses, friends and lovers. Crisis between closeness to others and vulnerability as a result. Successful resolution leads to deeply fulfilling relationships with others. Failure at resolution leads to loneliness. 7. Generativity versus stagnation Seventh stage of identity crisis. Draws from relationships with co-workers, neighbors and family. Crisis between a sense of being productive and feeling as if one has nothing to contribute. Successful resolution leads to generosity. Failure at resolution leads to emptiness. 8. Ego integrity versus despair Eighth stage of identity crisis. Draws from memories, regrets, legacy, and relationships with important others across life. Crisis between a sense of life well lived and a deep sense of loss. Successful resolution leads to wisdom and acceptance of death. Failure at resolution leads to helplessness and pain in facing dying |
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Term
| Freud's Psychosexual Development |
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Definition
| 1. Oral Phase (birth – 1 year). Anal Phase (1-3 years). Phallic Phase (3-6 years). Latency Phase (6 – 12 years). Genital Phase (12 and up) Phase descriptions Oral Phase Infant begins to identify a sense of self as separate from the outer world. The mouth is used to explore this world and is a source of desire and gratification or frustration. Orally fixated adults- immature or passive (Smoking habits, overeating and alcoholism might be attributed to fixations at this phase) Anal Phase Issues of control become of central importance.Toilet training tends to be cited as the most significant factor during this stage.Anal retentive vs anal expulsive (obsessive-compulsiveness vs messiness) Phallic Phase Children often become more aware of gender differences. Oedipal Complex originates at this stage, whereby the boy's Id drives him to wish to replace his stronger father as the object of his mother's love. The "Electra Complex" is the female version of the Oedipal Complex, and is not a Freudian idea Latency Phase Drives are repressed or latent. Genital Phase Sexual gratification is sought on an adult level, but can be reached by symbolic ways. Criticism Freud, himself and his theories, were sexually fixated at the loss of other important factors in personality development. Freud's theory professes universality and does not account for differences in culture. Despite the many criticisms of this model that have arisen over time, one of the most meaningful contributions of this model to modern psychology is the use of stages as a concept. Developmental stages are now widely used to explain phenomena in our field. |
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Definition
| 1. Seasons of a Man’s Life 2. Development proceeds through alternating periods of transition and stability 3. Theory based on interviews with 40 men who held professional jobs 4. Theory criticized both for excluding persons of lower socioeconomic status and for excluding women and their development Pre-Adulthood (birth – 22 years) 1. Identity formation and separation from family of origin Early Adulthood (17-45 years) 1. Person starts tochange the sense of self that he developed during childhood, and begins to make some tentative choices about life as an adult 2. Entering the Adult World- consolidated the choices made earlier 3. Age 30 Transition- establishing patterns of adult life, which include are consideration of choices made before settling down 4. Settling Down-Person has settled into his commitments as an adult Middle Adulthood (40-65) 1. Involves a change inperspective from "time since birth" to "time left to live." 2. Personbegins to relinquish the perspective of early adulthood, and may make more adjustments as a result of this change in perspective 3. Midlife transition –looking at the life lived, and evaluating whether one has worked well for his dream. May experience amidlife crisis 4. Age 50 Transition-involves making changes associated with entering this decade of life Late Adulthood (60 – 85 years) 1. Involves the developmental tasks associated with this stage of life, such as retirement, death, etc. |
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Definition
| Temperament trait of inhibition 1. Tends to be consistent throughout childhood |
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Term
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Definition
| System's tendency 1. To return to a state of balance or status quo in order to achieve stability and limited range of behavioral variability Families 1. Develop recurring patterns of interaction that maintain stability 2. Family may develop symptoms to bring group back to homeostatic state Therapist 1. Helps the family experience new, healthier balance |
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Definition
| Individual may experience more identity formation during early adulthood. Involves three processes 1. Assimilation 2. Accommodation 3. Balance Identity assimilation 1. Seeks consistency andlooks for information to support beliefs Identity accommodation 1. Seeks to change beliefsto accommodate new information Identity balance 1. Seeks to use bothassimilation and accommodation in balance Person may change when presented with new information |
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Term
| Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale (1967) |
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Definition
| 1. Thomas H. Holmes and Richard H. Rahe 2. Used as a measure of life stress and tool for examining the stress-illness relationship 3. Good and bad events in an individual's life can increase stress levels 4. Stress makes one more vulnerable to illness 5. Each stressor has a designated score 6. Forty-three items ranging in point value from least (11, minor law violations) to most stressful (100, death of a spouse) Scores 1. Score of less than 150 is considered minor stress; 150-199 is mild stress; 200-299 is moderate stress; 300 is major stress 2. Holmes and Rahe estimated that 35 percent of those who scored below 150 will experience an illness or accident within two years 3. Scores between 150 to 300 have a 51 percent chance to experience an illness or accident within two years 4. Scores more than 300 have an 80 percent chance of significant illness or accident |
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Definition
| 1. Challenged Kohlberg’s theory of moral development Gilligan argues 1. That Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender bias because he does not account for relationships and emotional bonds Difference Feminism 1. Women have differing moral and psychological tendencies than men Justice Perspective 1. Gilligan proposed that males generally prefer the justice perspective, which emphasizes fairness Caring Perspective 1. Gilligan asserted that the central moral dilemma faced by women is the conflict between their own needs and the needs of others 2. Based on her research, Gilligan concluded that women think less about abstract justice and fairness than men do, and think more about their responsibilities to specific people Three levels of moral development 1. Progressing from care of self 2. Care of others 3. Care of everyone including self Girls 1. Interpret moral dilemmas in terms of human relationships 2. Adolescent girls need experiences and support from others to maintain their individualization and identity and to value their strengths and accomplishments. Some research does not support gender differences in moral development, suggesting that males and females use the same approaches to solving moral dilemmas. Males typically experience a "relational crisis" in early childhood, while females experience this in adolescence and that is a time when girls struggle against losing voice |
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Term
| Big Five Personality Traits |
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Definition
| Paul Costa Jr. and Robert McCrae 1. Adults' personality may be described by five traits 2. Traits stabilize and remain constant once a person reaches the age of 30 The Big Five Personality Traits: Neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness 1 Neurotic: high levels of anxiety, hostility, self-consciousness, depression, impulsivity, and vulnerability 2. Extraverted: tend to have high energy and enjoy social interaction, leadership, and challenges, as well as remaining busy 3. Open to experience: tend to use their imagination often, appreciate art, and remain open to new experiences 4. Agreeable: tend to be accepting, caring, and willing to work with others 5. Conscientious: tend to be ambitious, energetic, careful, and determined Dorothy Field and Roger Millsap (1991) 1. Found that the traits of extraversion may decline as a person ages, while agreeableness may increase Research inconclusive as to whether traits remain stable or change with age |
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Term
| Gender Identity Development |
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Definition
| Gender Identity - "the perception of oneself as male or female" 1. The psychological impression a person has that they are male or female 2. A person can sexually be female, but have a Gender Identity of a maleShe may consider herself a male trapped in a female’s body. Lawrence Kohlberg- children go through stages in which they learn what behaviors are socially acceptable for males and females. 1. Children also identify themselves with a gender Gender Labeling stage - (2-3 years old) 1. Child learns to identify his or her sex Gender Stability stage - (preschool years) 1. Children learn that gender is stable 2. Understand that boys grow to be men and girls grow to be women.Gender Constancy stage - ( 4-6 years old)1. Children further learn that gender is stable. 2. Understand that even if a boy wears a dress, he will not become a female |
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Term
| Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development |
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Definition
| Moral development is commonly defined as the ability to distinguish right from wrong and to then act in accordance with that distinction. Based on Piaget’s theories and research, Lawrence Kohlberg examined moral reasoning by giving participants a set of ethical dilemmas. Kohlberg explained three levels of moral reasoning; pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional,with each level containing two stages. Level 1. Pre-conventional level of moral reasoning (based on punishments and rewards) Age: up to 10-13, most prison inmates Focus: Punishments and Rewards Stage 1: Obey the rules in order to avoid punishment. Stage 2: Obey the rules to obtain rewards or favors. Level 2. Conventional level of moral reasoning (based on social conformity) Age: From middle school to middle age - most people stop developing here Focus: Significant others setting rules about how one should behave Stage 3: Conform to win the approval of others. Stage 4: Conform to avoid disapproval or dislike of others. Level 3. Post-conventional level of moral reasoning(based on moral principle) Age: Middle age and up Focus: Justice, Dignity for all life, Common Good Stage 5: Abide by the laws of the land for the community’s welfare. Stage 6: Abide by universal ethical principles, which may or may not conform to society’s laws or expectations. Kohlberg focused more on how people reason rather than what conclusion they made. Kohlberg's Additional Observations: 1. Stage development progresses in sequential and invariable fashion 2. Higher stages cannot be comprehended by persons who are not yet there 3. People are cognitively attracted to the moral level above the one they are at 4. Cognitive disequilibrium provokes upward movement through the moral stages 5. A person can be physically yet not morally mature; most never reach post-conventional maturity Criticisms of Kohlberg's theory: 1. Gilligan, claimed that women's moral development not fully appreciated due to being socialized differently than men. 2. Women focus on relationships, compassion and care, while men primarily consider justice and judgment. 3. Gilligan purposed three levels of female moral development: 1. Focusing on oneself, and excluding others 2. Focusing on others and excluding self 3. Focusing on everyone, including self and others 4. Some of her critics state these levels resemble Kohlebergs three levels. 5. Others' criticisms: Kohlberg's stages are based on Western culture and don't honor collectivistic values. 6. Underestimated morality of young children: Young people may not be able to solve dilemmas well, but may display maturity in everyday situations. |
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Definition
| Five Stages of Death and Dying Denial 1.People reject the possibility of their death and search for more promising options and diagnoses Anger 1. People realize their death is imminent and experience anger, resentment, and envy; they feel frustrated because plans and dreams will not be fulfilled Bargaining 1. People look for ways to by time, making promises and negotiating with their god, doctors, nurses, or others for more time and for relief from pain and suffering Depression 1. Helplessness and hopelessness take hold when bargaining fails or time runs out; people mourn both for the losses that have already occurred and for the death and separation from family and friends that will soon occur Acceptance 1. People accept the fact of imminent death and await death calmly Not everyone moves through all stages or in the same order |
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Definition
| 1. Freud theorized that infant attachment is directly related to oral satisfaction 2. Erikson proposed that the first year of life represents the stage of "trust versus mistrust," a critical period in the development of attachment 3. Psychoanalytic theorists view attachment as a consequence of oral gratification 4. Learning theorists describe attachment as a result of reinforcement a. Learning theory has received the most support Names 1. Harry Harlow Studied monkeys reared with wire surrogate mothers and terry cloth surrogate monkeys Contact comfort: the importance of pleasurable tactile sensation as a contributor to attachment behavior 2. John Bowlby Formulated attachment theory and proposed that newborns are biologically equipped with both verbal and non-verbal behaviors that function to elicit instinctive nurturing responses from the caretaker 3. Mary Ainsworth Suggested that the attachment relationship between infant and caregiver begins at birth, developed the "Strange Situation" experiment and identified three main patterns of attachment Terms 1. Prolonged Separation According to Bowlby, a child's reaction to prolonged separation from a primary caretaker involves three stages: protest, despair, and detachment 2. Strange Situation Procedure The infant experiences a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with his or her caregiver and an adult stranger 3. Internal working model Positive and negative experiences of early childhood attachment directly influence the way in which an individual views themselves and others in human relationships. 4. Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) Interview to gain insight on a person's attachment state of mind as an adult. Identified patterns of Attachment 1. Secure Attachment When exposed to a stranger, these infants seek closeness and contact with the mother, may show mild distress upon separation, and greet the mother with enthusiasm when she returns 2. Avoidant Attachment The child engages in little interaction with the caregiver and is not concerned when the caregiver enters or leaves the room. Avoidant babies do not seek closeness and contact with the mother and treat the mother like a stranger 3. Ambivalent Attachment (resistant) Ambivalent babies are clingy and become upset when the mother leaves the room. When the mother returns, the babies are happy and reestablish contact, but they show their ambivalence by then resisting the mother's comforting behaviors 4. Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment These are infants who have a disorganized-disoriented attachment exhibit no clear strategy in dealing with the mother; this pattern is mainly seen in abused or neglected children |
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Term
| Social Referencing (Development of Emotional Expression) |
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Definition
| Emotional expression limited at birth 1. Infants generally display one of three emotional states: distress, contentment, or interest Social Referencing 1. The subtle emotional signals, usually from the parent, that influence the infant's behavior 2. Common before one year of age 3. Infant uses cues from another person a.Most likely mother or primary caretaker Age changes 1. Younger infants: More likely to continue looking at the mother if she expressed positive emotion 2. Older infants: Looked longer when the mother expressed apprehensive or negative responses 3. Infants 14 to 22 months: Fearful expressions by the parent decreased their likelihood of playing with an unfamiliar toy 4. Infants approaching two years: Fearful expressions had the opposite effect |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A behavioral act that results in harming or hurting others 2. Behavior may be physical, verbal, or relational 3. People may use bodily force, hurtful words, or destructive manipulations in relationships to harm each other 4. Abnormal aggression may result from a. Development of abnormal aggressive behavior linked to parental hostility and lack of warmth b. Disorganized Attachment Pattern associated with aggressive behavior in childhood Patterson's Coercion Model of Aggression 1. Aggressive behavior is learned from the social modeling of the parents 2. Coercive cycle begins when the child first resists requests made by his or her parents Parents escalate their requests and become additionally frustrated. Further noncompliance by the child. Parents relent and withdraw their requests from the child. Child learns that resistance and coercive behaviors are powerful. Child transfers coercive interaction with siblings and peers, acting coercively with peers then often leads to the child being rejected Perry, Perry, and Rasmussen (1986) 1. Focused on family interactions and aggressive behavior in children 2. Parental rejection and use of power-assertive discipline 3. Aggressive children responded with having higher levels of self-efficacy in performing aggressive acts than did their peers Aggressive children 1. More likely to feel that Aggression will decrease aversive treatment by others 2. Reported more difficulty managing impulses 3. Without effective treatment, likely to become violent as adolescents and adults (especially for boys) 4. Exposure to violence in the media may have an impact on aggressive behavior 5. Limbic system (specifically amygdala and septum) associated with aggression |
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Term
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Definition
| This is 1. The degree to which a person understands morality, is able to have feelings of guilt, and desires to make reparations for wrongdoing 2. The beginning of a moral self Parenting and temperament 1. Influence conscience 2. The degree of a child's anxiety in their temperament mediates the relationship between parental discipline and the development of conscience |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. An infant's fear of strangers or of being separated from the caregiver Stranger Anxiety 1. Develops at about eight to 10 months of age 2. Continues throughout the first year 3. Gradually decreases in the second year 4. Is linked with the infant's developmental task of distinguishing the familiar from the unfamiliar and often begins shortly after infants have formed their first clear attachments. 5. Duration and intensity varies among children 6. A normal part of a child's cognitive development Discrepancy hypothesis cognitive theory 1. Around seven months of age infants acquire schemes for familiar objects. When a new image or object is presented that differs from the old one, the child may experience uncertainty and anxiety. Stranger Anxiety results when infant develops object permanence Social referencing 1. One way parents/caregivers assist infants in adjusting to strangers; refers to the subtle emotional signals that influence infant's behavior |
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Definition
| 1. Formation of a bond between some newborn animals (especially birds) and their mothers 2. Imprinting describes the process in which certain stimuli are capable of eliciting innate behavior patterns during a critical period of the animal's development Lorenz's findings 1. Ducklings that had imprinted on him between 12 and 17 hours after birth continued to follow him even when other ducks later became available as models 2. Attachment in humans appears to be an active, reciprocal, enduring relationship 3. Attachment in nonhuman primates are presumed to be instinctual or biological John Bowlby's findings 1. Formulated attachment theory, and proposed that attachment is crucial to healthy development Contact comfort 1. Harry Harlow found that food is needed for survival, but pleasurable tactile sensations were critical to attachment behavior Mary Ainsworth 1. Attachment relationship between infant and caregiver begins at birth and becomes increasingly important in the second half of the first year |
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Definition
| Emotional expression 1. Is limited at birth Neonates 1. Convey different emotional states by crying in different ways Infants 1. Display emotions such as distress, contentment, or interest 2. Happiness, sadness, and disgust are displayed at around six months Social referencing 1. Becomes common at about one year of age. At that time, the child will use cues from another person, such as a mother, to deal with affective uncertainty 2. The development of emotions continues into childhood as self-awareness and the awareness of others continue to grow. 3. Social referencing, which is common at about one year, refers to the customs and conventions that govern social interactions Adolescence 1. Self-acceptance is considered to be most critical for healthy development Emotional contagion 1. Describes the phenomenon that begins among infants shortly after birth, in which the infant begins to cry after hearing another baby cry Care-taking responsibilities 1. Promotes the development of empathy Milestones of Emotional Development in Early Childhood and Adolescents 1. Early childhood (6 to 9 years): Self-esteem is developing. Children beginning to care about what peers think. 2. Middle childhood (10 to 12 years): Social skills are emerging and some children may become overly concerned with weight and physical appearance 3. Early teens (13 to 15 years): Attempting to establish own identities and want acceptance from peers 4. Late teens (16 to 18 years): Late teens are becoming independent and exploring different roles, looks, values, lifestyles and friendships, and they begin to form their own values and standards |
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Definition
| John Gottman and Robert Levenson 1. Demonstrated, with 93 percent accuracy, the ability to predict Divorce Gottman's Theory of Marital Dissolution 1. Four indicators of early Divorce: contempt, criticism, defensiveness, and stonewalling 2. Stonewalling: happens when one person of a marital dyad withdraws from interacting with the other person, hence creating a "stone wall" around him or herself 3. Couples with higher negative interactions are more likely to get a Divorce Divorce rates around the world 1. Sweden has the highest at 54 percent 2. Divorce rate in United States: 50 percent 3. Divorce rates in other countries, such as Canada, Austria, France, and Germany, are lower than in the U.S. 4. India has the lowest, at 1.1 percent Causes of Divorce 1. Include infidelity, incompatibility, drinking or drug use, and emotional distancing Impact of Divorce 1. Experienced by men and women both 2. Couples with children: women are most often granted custody and the financial responsibility of caring for their children 3. Women also tend to be paid less than men 4. Fathers often contribute less financially after a Divorce 5. Women are less likely to remarry than men 6. Typically, men and women who have experienced Divorce have lowered levels of life satisfaction for two to three years following the Divorce Children from divorced families 1. More likely to do poorer academically than their peers 2. More likely to demonstrate conduct problems 3. More likely to develop depression and anxiety 4. Increased risk to drop out of school, take drugs, and have low self-esteem 5. Although there is increased risk, most children whose parents are divorced do not develop these issues 6. Children's reactions are largely dependent upon their temperament and personality 7. Boys and girls appear to demonstrate similar reactions to the Divorce 8. Greatest impact on children that are in kindergarten through high school, less impact on preschool or college age 9. Children who live with married parents that argue constantly demonstrate similar issues to children whose parents have divorced. 10. Divorce may be beneficial if the child is moved from an unstable situation, with married parents, to a stable living arrangement 11. Living conditions that do not improve following the Divorce tend to have a negative impact on the children 12. Contact with noncustodial father: children display less conduct problems 13. Sleeper effect: girls may demonstrate a delay in developing psychological problems related to parents' Divorce 14. Similar to adults, children often need at least two years to adjust to their parents' Divorce. The most valid predictor of divorce adjustment in children occurs two years post Divorce Divorce hangover 1. Occurs when men and women have a difficult time creating new relationships and ending their focus on their past marriage |
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Term
| Gay and Lesbian Parenting |
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Definition
| 1. Like heterosexual parents, represent a diverse group 2. Research on gay and lesbian parents has shown that children of these parents are as well adjusted as children of heterosexual parents 3. Equivalent rates of homosexuality as in the general population 4. It is not the sexual orientation of the parent that predicts an adolescent's social adjustment, but rather the quality of the parent-child relationship Work division 1. Lesbian couples who parent together divide household and family labor evenly and are satisfied within their relationship 2. Gay fathers been found to divide the work involved in child care relatively evenly Single parents 1. Children in single parent homes (heterosexual, as well as gay and lesbian) tend to demonstrate lower levels of achievement 2. Lower achievement may be associated with the effects of low family income, or poverty |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Maternal Employment has increased significantly 2. Results of research on the effects of Maternal Employment mixed 3. Positive effects of Maternal Employment outweigh the negative 4. Dual-career families seem to be doing well overall 5. Husbands are increasing their contribution to housework and child care activities Children of working mothers 1. No conclusive evidence that Maternal Employment alone has long-term negative effects on a child's development 2. Maternal employment represents positive effects on children when it represents an increase in the family income 3. Children of working mothers tend to have more egalitarian views of sex roles than children of stay-at-home mothers 4. Middle-class boys in daycare have slightly lower academic performance than middle-class boys whose mothers do not work; however, lower-class boys placed in daycare seem to do better academically than lower-class boys who are raised at home 5. Overall, employment has a positive effect on children's development by increasing family resources, which is found to positively affect children's behavior problems Lack of supervision 1. A negative |
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Term
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Definition
| Reconstituted families 1. Are usually the result of marriage-death-remarriage 2. Approximately 50 percent of divorced individuals with children remarry within four years of their divorce Blending families can be a difficult process 1. Stepparents tend to have extreme forms of parenting shortly after remarriage 2. Challenges often involve shared child custody, financial support, or visitation 3. Both children and stepparents need time to develop trust, affection, and a feeling of closeness 4. Young girls tend to be most oppositional toward their parents' remarriage. 5. Boys tend to fare better with stepparents than girls do Most children who experience a blended family become adequately well-adjusted adults |
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Term
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Definition
| Sibling relationships 1. Influential 2. Vary widely 3. Loving or conflictual 4. Helpful in identifying and learning social concepts Sibling rivalry 1. Begins early in life 2. May be related to competing for parents' attention 3. May be related to birth order 4. Older children may get more attention 5. Parents may show favoritism 6. Parents may show differences in treatment of family roles Children of same age and gender 1. Tend to be more quarrelsome With age 1. Siblings tend to have more egalitarian relationships |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Permissive: Permissive Parents exercise little control over their children but are high in warmth. Authoritarian: Authoritarian Parents are highly controlling, show little warmth, and adhere to rigid rules. Children contribute little to the family’s decision-making process. Authoritative: Authoritative Parents combine a high degree of warmth, acceptance, and encouragement of autonomy with firm but flexible control. Indifferent/Neglectful: Indifferent/Neglectful parenting style added later. Indifferent/Neglectful parents neither set limits nor display much affection or approval. Influences of Parenting Styles Parenting style influences children as they continue to develop and grow. Permissive: Children with permissive parents tend to show little self-discipline. Authoritarian: Children with authoritarian parents also have difficulty making decisions, considering their parents made all their decisions for them. Authoritative: Children with authoritative parents are self-reliant, friendly, and confident. Indifferent/Neglectful: Children with parents who are indifferent/neglectful tend to be socially incompetent, have low self-esteem, and poor self-control. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ethnic Perspective Taking Ability (EPTA) 1. Awareness of one's own race and ethnicityChildren progress through four stages of EPTA 1. Level 0: Children are preschool age and have the capacity to notice differences in ethnicity based on physical differences (skin, hair and eye color, shape and dress) By age 4, children begin to express favorable attitudes toward their own ethnic groups 1. Level 1: Children are 5 to 9 years old, and gain the ability to notice and describe qualities of ethnicity such as awareness of food and languages 2. Level 2: Ages 7 to 12 years old, children are able to consider how others might view them and their ethnicity, such as prejudice 3. Level 3: Ages 10-15 years old, children begin to understand ethnicity with more depth and begin to surround themselves with their culture |
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Term
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Definition
| Life cycle 1. Death is an integral part of every person's life cycle 2. At the end of a long life, it is the ultimate developmental milestone 3. Early in life (infancy, childhood, and early adulthood) it often seems unfair Reactions to Death 1. Reactions to a person's death are deeply imbedded in a culture 2. Emotional reactions and impact to death vary greatly among individuals 3. Western culture copes with death through denial 4. Taboo to speak about death in recent past; now more acceptable to speak about death more freely Dealing with death 1. Dealing with issues related to death and dying openly makes it easier to develop effective coping strategies for handling death Children's understanding of death 1. Children first develop an understanding of death around the age of 5 2. Prior to that age, children tend to believe that death is temporary, like a deep sleep that people can choose to wake from 3. Children may develop the belief that they are the cause of a loved one's death 4. By age of 9, children gain an understanding about the finality and universality of death Coincides with Piaget's Concrete Operational stage of development 5. Parents should be honest with their children in a sensitive way, using age-appropriate language Adolescents 1. Adolescents are able to speak about death in more abstract ways than when they were younger 2. Tend to believe that they are invincible to death Middle adulthood 1. Tend to develop a fear of death that is stronger than it had been and will be in late adulthood Late adulthood 1. Less afraid of death and have a more contemplative, realistic perception about the subject One's own death 1. Confronting one's own death is the last major crisis faced 2. Elizabeth Kubler-Ross proposed five stages of grief when facing one's own death: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Known for a parenting technique to aid children in going to sleep Sleep method 1. Applied to children 4-6 months of age 2. Baby should be emotionally and physically capable 3. Parents teach the child to self-soothe and fall asleep "Progressive waiting" 1. Parents gradually increase the amount of wait time before comforting the baby 2. Comfort the baby without holding 3. Eventually baby learns to fall asleep without comforting |
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Term
| Rutter's Indicators of Adversity |
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Definition
| Origin 1. Rutters and his colleagues studied families on the Isle of Wight and the inner borough of London 2. Risk factors within the family environment correlated significantly with childhood mental disturbances Risk factors include: low socioeconomic status, criminality of the father, overcrowding (i.e., large family size), maternal psychopathology, chronic marital discord, and institutional care (i.e., placement in foster care) Risks 1. Cumulative risk: Two risk factors resulted in increase in the likelihood of mental disorder 2. Four risk factors resulted in a 10-fold increase in risk to the child 3. Higher levels of the multiple risk indicators predict increased behavior problems and poorer social competence in early and middle childhood 4. Despite multiple risk factors, many children are able to adjust to stress and develop competent social, emotional, and cognitive functioning Resilience 1. Used to explain why some children do better than others in extreme circumstances with multiple risk factors 2. Child's ability to show successful development and adaptation despite being in contexts of risk, and show adequate social and cognitive competence despite the presence of risk factors 3. Characteristics that distinguish resilient children from those who are not as resilient: dispositional attributes, family characteristics, and the availability and use of external support systems by family members 4. Characteristics associated with resiliency include easy temperament, at least average intelligence, and self-efficacy 5. Family characteristics associated with resiliency include a close emotional tie with an adult family member or an organized family with routines and clear expectations 6. Girls were at lower risk for poor adjustment after major stressful events Protective factors 1. Associated with better child and adolescent outcomes in contexts of risk |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Speakers of different languages usually think differently because of the structure of their languages 2. Theory in linguistics that refers to the relationship between language and thought 3. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Language's specific nature significantly influences the routine thought of its speakers "Linguistic relativity hypothesis" 1. Language determines the nature of thought and predicts that cultures have different ways of thinking about the world 2. Culture is determined by language 3. Differences in language reflect differences in cultures and how they perceive the world |
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Term
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Definition
| Sexual activity 1. Physiological and psychological changes in middle adulthood affect sexual functioning of both men and women 2. Older adults remain sexually active and very interested in sex 3. Frequency of sexual activity and number of sexual partners decreases Common factors for decreased sexual activity 1. Include health problems, side effects from prescription drugs, mental health problems, negative social attitudes, stereotypes about sex in later life, and long periods of abstinence Masters and Johnson 1. Pioneered research on the physiological changes in sexual capacity that occurs with age Men 1. The decline of sexual capacity, longer to arouse, are slower to ejaculate after being aroused, have a longer recovery time after sexual activity, and have a gradual decline of levels of sex hormones Women 1. Retain the physiological capacity for sexual activity longer than men 2. Less sexually active than men in old age, primarily due to lack of partner |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Physical changes that occur after middle age include: decreased cardiac output, high blood pressure, and a decline in visual and hearing acuity Central nervous system 1. Begins to degenerate with loss of neurons and changes in tissues and supporting neurons 2. Decreases affected by the environment and lifestyle choices Life span 1. Maximum human life span between 110 and 120 years Primary aging 1. The upper limit on the human life span is thought to be due to primary aging, the inevitable changes in physical and mental processes 2. Explanations for primary aging include programmed theories, which hold that aging is genetically controlled, and the wear and tear theory which holds that daily stressors wear out the body's cells Secondary aging 1. Secondary aging results from disease, disuse, and neglect of the body 2. Secondary aging may account for much of the deterioration typically associated with growing old in our society. Successfully aging 1. Live long and be content in life 2. Factors linked with successful aging: personality differences, active social life, activity, exercise, positive attitude, keeping mind stimulated, sense of control over one's environment Social comparison 1. Older people compare their situations to those of other older people around them and modify their perspectives accordingly Sexual activity 1. Sex drive does not diminish with age 2. Sexual activity related to sexual activity in younger years 3. Past sexual behavior indicator of future sexual activity 4. For women, the lack of an available partner is typically the main barrier to sexual activity |
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Term
| Marcia's Identity Development |
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Definition
| James Marcia 1. Identity formation Describes four possible states or statuses for adolescents 1. Diffusion 2. Foreclosure 3. Moratorium 4. Achievement Adolescents experience crisis and commitment in discovering their identities 1. Crisis is a period in which an adolescent examines various possible identities 2. Commitment is a period in which adolescents become oriented and invested toward one identity Adolescents fall into one of four categories in the process of developing identity 1. Identity Diffusion: lacks direction, is not committed to goals and values, and is not seriously considering options or trying to develop goals. Both crisis and commitment are absent 2. Foreclosure: accepts ready made identity chosen by an authority figure. Absence of crisis for the adolescent, yet a commitment has been made 3. Moratorium: has not yet made a definite commitment and is in the active process of struggling with decisions, and exploring interests and needs. Person is in crisis, with an absence of commitment. 4. Identity achievement: actively struggled and explored several options and then developed his own goals and values. Adolescent has resolved the crisis and made a commitment. |
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Term
| Marital Satisfaction Across the Lifespan |
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Definition
| Terms Marriage relationship - One of the most vital relationships in the lives of most adults. Marital Satisfaction - Generally high for most couples Trends Women tend to be more affected by family life transitions. Life transitions are experienced as positive, some as negative. Marriages also face challenges when partners become seriously ill or need care. The nature and quality of marital relationships changes over the years. During parenting years, women often recognize imbalance in their marriages because they are doing most of the family’s work. - When the children leave home, women often experience their marriages as fairer, more equal, and less conflictual than during the parenting years. Sexual intercourse decreases and psychological intimacy increases over the years. Elderly couples are more affectionate than middle-aged couples, have less conflict, and have the ability to resolve conflicts without letting out as many negative emotions. Couples who report being happy early in their marriage are often found to be happy later. - Couples who are unhappy early in marriage tend to stay miserable. Generally, married adults are happier, healthier, and often better off financially than their unmarried peers. Older adults who are divorced or widowed tend to be lonelier than those who have partners. Men experience an increase in life satisfaction when they attain a spouse and a decrease in life satisfaction when they lose one. |
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Term
| Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs |
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Definition
| 1. Classic view ofself-development Basic needs 1. First four needs 2. Physiological needs food, clothing, oxygen and shelter Safety needs 1. Physical and emotional security 2. Belongingness and love needs relationships and affection Esteem needs- 1. Self-respect and sense of mastery Self-actualization needs 1. Ultimate goal in self-development Realizing one’s talents and abilities Need for higher values 1. The "being-needs" or "b-values" developed after one has reached self-actualization |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Rosenthal Effect suggests that teachers' expectations have an impact on students' academic performance 2. Also known as Pygmalion effect or teacher-expectancy effect 3. Rosenthal and Jacobson hypothesized that if teachers expected certain students to perform better, the students actually would Rat research 1. Rosenthal and other researchers (1976) conducted a series of experiments using rats 2. The students' expectation of the rats had resulted in different methods of treatment which had affected the rats' learning ability Pygmalion effect 1. Organizational effectiveness can be increased by raising leaders' expectations of their workers |
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Term
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Definition
| Success in school 1. Influenced by many factors, including parental support, anxiety, and locus of control 2. Measured by the level of performance that is expected of a student Achievement motivation 1. Learned drive that involves a students persistence toward success and excellence 2. Influenced by culture and family values Rosenthal effect 1. Teachers' expectations have an impact on students' academic performance 2. Teachers with high expectations resulting in better student performance Gender also plays a role in student achievement 1. Both female and male teachers have a greater degree of interaction with male students, though these interactions tend to be more critical or negative 2. Both female and male teachers praise females for effort and cooperation, while they praise males for ability and achievement Anxiety 1. Research demonstrates a relationship between anxiety and Academic Achievement 2. Mild anxiety related to improved performance Parental role 1. Can support Academic Achievement by providing a supportive environment, stressing the importance of education, and encouraging the development of self-esteem and self-efficacy Early child-hood education 1. Compensatory programs 2. Demonstrate academic gains for disadvantaged children 3. Quality preschools Include focus on both cognitive and socioemotional development 4. No significant difference in long-term academic gains comparing a quality preschool and involved parents providing appropriate interaction and teaching. |
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Term
| Montessori Teaching Method |
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Definition
| 1. Dr. Maria Montessori, Italian physician and educator 2. All learning is related to sensory perception 3. Children are educated by example from their teachers and fellow students 4. Other children facilitate learning in the younger ones 5. Children have different experiences over time of first being the youngest and later of being the oldest 6. Children are not pushed to excel 7. Encouraged to perform at their potential 8. Individual learning goals Initial development 1. Initially developed to assist with mental retardation Other applications 1. Effective in general education. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A learning disorder in which a person has difficulty with reading accuracy, speed, or comprehension 2. Reading disorder sometimes referred to as dyslexia Diagnosis made 1. After collecting data from a standardized intelligence test and an educational assessment of achievement 2. Approximately 60-80 percent males 3. Males with the condition tend to exhibit more disruptive behaviors than females do, which may explain why boys are diagnosed more frequently 4. When attention is given to both, males and females exhibit comparable rates of the diagnosis Usually diagnosed 1. When children enter into kindergarten or first grade 2. Children with higher IQ may be diagnosed later 3. Children with specific learning disabilities do not reach normal reading levels by adulthood |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Is a learning disorder in which people struggle with mathematical skills 2. Consists of deficits in arithmetic skills expected for a child'sintellectual capacity and educational level 3. Deficits interfere with school performance or daily life activities Individuals may have 1. Difficulty remembering numerals 2. Unable to remember basic facts about numbers 3. Slow and inaccurate in computation Poor achievement in four groups of skills 1. Linguisticskills- understanding mathematical terms and converting written problems into mathematical symbols 2. Perceptualskills-the ability to recognize and understand symbols and order clusters of numbers 3. Mathematicalskills- basic addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, andfollowing sequencing of basic operations 4. Attentionskills-involve copying figures correctly and observing operational symbols correctly Can occur 1. In isolation 2. In conjunction with language and reading disorders Signs appear 1. By the second or third grade 2. Typically visible early in life Students 1. With an above average intelligence may be able to mask the disorder longer 2. Not all students who have difficulty with math have a learning disorder 3. Other factors should be considered, such as their motivation, anxiety, and the teaching |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A reading disorder 2. Three types:Surface Dyslexia, Phonological Dyslexia, and Semantic Dyslexia Surface Dyslexia 1. Good ability to sound out words, but read very laboriously 2. Difficulty learning to recognize whole words visually 3. Problems deciphering words that do not follow regular phonetic rules 4. Spelling is highly phonetic, for example writing "skul" for "school" Phonological Dyslexia 1. Difficulties with word attack skills including phonetic segmentation and blending 2. Poor non word reading skills; for example, the inability to decipher invented words with no real meaning used to test phonetic skills 3. Spelling is inconsistent with bizarre letter combinations Semantic Dyslexia 1. Poor performance on tests of rapid automatic naming 2. Difficulty with word retrieval May have symptoms in more than one. 60 percent of children with Dyslexia havePhonological Dyslexia. 10 percent have Surface Dyslexia. 30 percent have a combination of forms and symptoms |
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Term
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Definition
| Infants 1. Develop an implicit sense of self through the perceptions of their bodies and actions At two to three months 1. Develop a capacity to differentiate themselves from the world. 2. Discover things about their physical selves, distinguish themselves from the rest of the world 3. Understand that they can act upon other people and objects At nine months or older 1. Infants begin to realize that they are separate beings from their companions and that they have different perspectives that can be shared 2. Joint attention: Describes infants and their caregiver's shared perceptual experiences when they look at the same thing at the same time At 18 months 1. Infants can begin to recognize themselves in the mirror At 18 to 24 months 1. Infants begin to recognize themselves visually as distinct individuals 2. Michael Lewis and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn: "Rouge Experiment" Studied self-recognition or the ability to recognize oneself in a mirror or photograph 3. Categorical self: Infants recognize themselves and classify themselves into categories 4. Infants have an awareness of who they are as a physical self with a unique appearance and age and gender category 5. Children become aware of race for the first time by 3 to 4 years of age |
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Term
| Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) |
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Definition
| 1. The use of computers to enact drills, tutorials, and simulations for educational purposes 2. Many benefits in the classroom Students 1. Tend to retain learning material better when CAI is used 2. Learning rate tends to be faster than when only conventional teaching methods are used 3. Tend to create longer and better quality writing samples 4. Demonstrate better awareness of writing style 5. Students report experience as fun and impartial, prefer to work at an individualized pace Computers 1. Are non-judgmental 2. Can be programmed to praise students for good work 3. Eliminate public embarrassment Younger students tend to benefit most from experience. High achieving students benefit, but to a lesser degree |
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Term
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Definition
| Persuasion: efforts to alter attitudes and beliefs Effectiveness of persuasion influenced by: 1. source of communication; 2. message itself; 3. Audience Order of message also influential. Primacy Effect: With long gap between speech and desired action: 1st to speak is best remembered. Recency Effect: With short gap between speech and desired action: last to speak is best remembered. Overall: info at the end is better remembered. Aggressive children: tend to operate on recency effect: notice cues at the end, struggle with recalling earlier cues; affects interpretation of whole situation |
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Term
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Definition
| Adolescent Egocentrism, developed by Elkind (1967) 1. Adolescents' self-absorption in understanding their own thoughts, attitudes, and values 2. May rebel against authority figures Divided into two parts 1. Imaginary audience 2. Personal fable Imaginary audience 1. Adolescents' assumption that others are focusing a great deal of critical attention on them Personal fable 1. Adolescents' belief that they are so special that they should be exempt from the laws of nature, that nothing bad can happen to them, and that they will live forever |
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Term
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Definition
| Descriptors 1. More common among males than females 2. Increase in female delinquency during past 20 years 3. Higher rates of illegal activity in low socioeconomic status Factors leading to adolescent delinquency 1. Prefrontal cortex still developing 2. Lack of positive role models 3. Environmental stress 4. Peer pressure 5. Identity issues 6. Family problems Antisocial behavior associated with parenting styles that are 1. Permissive 2. Uninvolved 3. Inconsistent in discipline 4. Lacking in positivity 5. Lacking in supervision Parental support and monitoring key in keeping youth away from criminal activity. Children not taught appropriate social skills by parents tend to begin deviant behavior earlier than peers. Undersocialized delinquents 1. Tend to do poorly in school 2. Are often rejected by their peers |
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Term
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Definition
| Adolescence 1. Often characterized by risk-taking behaviors 2. High risk-taking behaviors in adolescence include the use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and other illegal drugs 3. Use of all three of these drugs increases between ages 18-25 Alcohol 1. Use is the most common risky behavior and is a major problem on most college campuses 2. Among college students, 75 percent have had at least one alcoholic beverage within the past 30 days 3. Alcohol is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant 4. Alcohol eases tension and facilitates social interaction Tobacco 1. 60 percent of regular smokers begin using tobacco before age 14 2. 90 percent begin before age 19 Marijuana 1. The most widely used drug in the United States 2. 2003 survey of 50,000 students revealed that approximately 50 percent of high school seniors admitted to having used marijuana in the previous year Common influences 1. For drug use stem from individuals' family, friends, genetics, and social situations 2. More likely to abuse alcohol if a parent is an alcoholic 3. Adolescents who use a drug typically have at least one friend who uses the same drug Warning signs often displayed in childhood 1. Children tend to be less attentive and less well-adjusted than their peers, more impulsive and emotional, social skills usually less well-developed, and their self-esteem tends to be lower |
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Term
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Definition
| Includes 1. Self-concept: Understanding of who he or she is Shaped by skills and roles in daily activities during childhood. Involves "who you are" 2. Self-esteem: Refers to a person's attitudes or evaluation of self Involves evaluation of self 3. Self-efficacy: Refers to what a person believes her or she is capable of doing in a given situation |
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Term
| Suicide Among Adolescents |
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Definition
| This is 1. The third leading cause among adolescents Boys are 1. More likely to successfully complete suicide Girls are 1. More likely to attempt suicide American Indians/Native Alaskans who are non-Hispanic 1. Most likely to successfully commit suicide Hispanic adolescents 1. Are most likely to attempt suicide Risk factors include 1. Previous attempts 2. Depression 3. Psychiatric problems 4. Stressful life events 5. Access to and use of firearms 6. Use of drugs and alcohol |
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