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Definition
| Also known as classical conditioning, or respondent conditioning (archaic). A pervasive and non-conscious form of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus is paired with another stimulus that is capable of eliciting a reflexive response, until eventually the previously neutral stimulus becomes capable of eliciting a response on its own. The individual learns that a particular stimulus or stimuli predict the occurrence of another significant stimulus or event. Essential Elements The stimulus that elicits a reflexive response before training is called the unconditioned stimulus(US). The response elicited by the US is called the unconditioned response(UR). The stimulus paired with the US is called the conditioned stimulus(CS). The response eventually elicited by the CS is called the conditioned response(CR). Characteristics. When the CS reliably precedes the US, the procedure is called forward conditioning Forward conditioning is the most effective type of Pavlovian conditioning. When the CS overlaps in time with the US, it is called delay conditioning, a type of forward conditioning. Delay conditioning is the most effective type of forward conditioning. When there is an interval between offset of the CS and onset of the US, it is called trace conditioning, a type of forward conditioning. Trace conditioning is typically less effective than delay conditioning When the CS follows the US, it is called backward conditioning. Backward conditioning is usually ineffective (no CR develops). Application. The CR can either resemble the UR (most common), or it can be the opposite of the UR (called compensatory CRs). Compensatory CRs often develop to stimuli paired with unconditioned drug responses. Pavlovian conditioning is pervasive, and has clinical applications to such conditions as phobias and anxiety disorders. Secondary reinforcer: once paired with an reinforcing unconditioned stimuli, a conditioned stimuli could become reinforcing by itself. The bell (CS) is paired with the meat (US) and becomes a reinforcing stimuli without the presence of the meat. |
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| Definition: An operant learning technique, in which a series of responses is broken down into its components, and the individual is first trained on the last component, then the second-to-last plus the last component are combined, then the third-to-last is added, and so on until the whole series of responses is mastered Application1. Used to train complex series of responses 2. Primary reinforcement is provided whenever the last response in the sequence is performed 3. During each progression, the already-mastered components serve as conditioned reinforcers that support learning the added component 4. Effective because it allows the individual to see the completed goal he or she is trying to accomplish |
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| A term that is used in both Classical and Operant Conditioning. Refers to an individual's ability to respond differently to different stimuli or when in different situations. A cue or contextual feature that signals whether or not reinforcement is available for a particular operant behavior is referred to as a Discriminative Stimulus. The opposite of Stimulus Discrimination is Stimulus Generalization. The greater the differences between two stimuli or situations, the more likely that Stimulus Discrimination will occur. The greater the similarity between two stimuli or situations, the more likely that Stimulus Generalization will occur |
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| A term used in both Classical and Operant Conditioning. In Classical Conditioning, it occurs when other similar stimuli elicit the same conditioned response (CR) as a conditioned stimulus. In Operant Conditioning, it is demonstrated when an individual fails to differentiate between different cues or contexts, and responds the same way regardless of whether or not the present cues or context signals that the response will be reinforced. PTSD involves a problem with Stimulus Generalization, as people diagnosed with PTSD may show fear for many types of similar stimuli. Mediated Generalization is a term given to instances where a response is elicited by stimuli that are not physically similar to the conditioned stimulus, and not previously encountered in conditioning |
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| Term Used 1. Both operant and classical conditioning Occurs 1. When the rate of a previously reinforced behavior decreases following the discontinuation of reinforcement 2. The decreases or discontinuation of behavior is not always permanent, and the behavior can recover spontaneously with the passage of time (spontaneous recovery) 3. Occasional bursts of behavior, called extinction bursts, can occur during the extinction process, even though the overall frequency of the behavior is decreasing 4. Because extinction bursts may occur, alternatives to extinction should be used to eliminate certain behaviors, the occurrence of which cannot be tolerated Procedures 1. Extinction procedures must be employed consistently in order to effectively reduce the target behavior, and even occasional reinforcement can reinstate responding to pre-extinction levels, and increase resistance to further extinction. Spontaneous Recovery 1. A behavior that has gone through the extinction process and then reappears due to nothing more than the passage of time. Cue Deflation 1. When a compound stimulus controls behavior, extinction to one element of the compound can increase responding to the other element through a process called cue deflation Response Cost 1. Don't confuse with Extinction 2. Negative Punishment (something taken away to stop a behavior) 3. No direct association between the reward or stimulus perpetuating the negative behavior and the desired item being taken away to stop the negative behavior. |
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| A Pavlovian-conditioning experiment conducted by John Watson, in which he repeatedly presented a child with a white lab rat followed by a loud and frightening noise, until the child was conditioned to fear white lab rats, and other objects that resemble them. Key Elements of the Experiment The loud noise was an unconditioned stimulus (US). Fear, as indicated by crying, was the unconditioned response (UR) to the noise. The white lab rat was the conditioned stimulus (CS). Fear, as indicated by crying or by avoidance, was the conditioned response (CR) Significance Ethically questionable. An example of the mechanisms that underlie the acquisition of phobias in humans. Demonstrated Stimulus Generalization in Pavlovian fear conditioning |
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| Higher-Order Conditioning (Second-Order Conditioning) |
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Definition
| 1. First defined by Pavlov: A Classical Conditioning phenomenon, with no counterpart in Operant Conditioning 2. Classical (or Pavlovian) Conditioning: Neutral stimulus (NS: bell) paired with unconditioned stimulus (US: meat powder) until the former becomes conditioned stimulus (CS), hence evoking a conditioned response (CR: salivation) 3. Higher-Order Conditioning: After Classical Conditioning has taken place, another NS is paired with CS until it, too, becomes a CS capable of evoking a CR 4. Example: Green light (NS) now paired with bell (CS), until green light also elicits salivation, hence becoming a higher-order (or second-order) CS 5. The first CS evokes stronger response (CR) than does the second CS (hence, "higher-order") 6. Process can go on and on, turning several NSs into CSs, capable of eliciting a CR (Coleman, 2003) 7. Higher-Order Conditioning is an important mechanism by which stimuli acquire incentive value, becoming something for which an individual is willing to work |
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| Also known as Conditioned Taste Aversion, it is a type of classical conditioning that occurs when the taste of a relatively unfamiliar food is associated with gastrointestinal discomfort or illness, leads to a long-lasting aversion to that particular taste. Origins First demonstrated in rats by John Garcia Example Garcia fed rats saccharin-flavored water followed by apomorphine, which causes nausea; other rats received saline instead of apomorphine. Days after nausea had dissipated, the rats that received apomorphine would drink very little saccharin-flavored water, whereas those that received saline drank a lot of it Characteristics Occurs in many species, including humans. A unique classical conditioning phenomenon because 1) it can occur in few, or even one, trial 2) Effective interval between CS and US can be very long (i.e., hours) 3) It is highly resistant to extinction Application Often occurs in oncology patients who undergo chemotherapy or radiotherapy, as both cause nausea Patient can be provided with novel-tasting food (e.g., licorice-flavored ice cream) to prevent association between nausea and desirable foods |
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| A mathematical account of how associative strength grows during Pavlovian conditioning: delta Vn=K(lamda - Vn-1) V = associative strength (level of knowledge about the CS-US relationship) n = is the conditioning-trial number delta = change (the measure of learning) K reflects salience of the CS and US; can vary between 0 – 1. lambda = max. amount of conditioning in this situation. Origins 1970s; formulated to explain conditioning phenomena that cannot be explained by CS – US contiguity Application Explains why typical learning curves for Pavlovian conditioning are gradual, negatively decelerating. conditioning is faster with stimuli that are more salient (i.e., overshadowing). when two or more stimuli predict a US, conditioning occurs to the one with the strongest predictive validity (i.e, contingency). if the US is already predicted by one CS, conditioning will not occur to another CS that provides redundant information (i.e., blocking) |
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Definition
| Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning term with no counterpart in Operant Conditioning. The passage of time serves as a conditioned stimulus (CS). The individual comes to anticipate the unconditioned stimulus will occur at a particular time, even when there are no specific extraneous cues that predict its occurrence. The body's natural circadian rhythms are thought to play a role in some instances of Temporal Conditioning, namely those in which cues related to a particular time of day serve as the conditioned stimulus |
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| Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning) |
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Definition
| Involves learning about the relationship between behavior and its consequence. Thorndike is the theorist with whom it is most often associated. It is founded on Thorndike's Law of Effect, which describes how the events that follow a behavior affect the probability of that behavior being repeated. According to the Law of Effect, behaviors that are followed by pleasurable consequences are more likely to be repeated, whereas those followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated |
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Definition
| An operant conditioning procedure in which there is a gradual decrease in the frequency of reinforcement Application Used to reduce the amount of reinforcement, without reducing the behavior. Most effective with positively reinforced behavior, compared to negatively reinforced. Useful in behavior modification when client must initially receive continuous reinforcement in order to encourage a desired behavior |
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| 1. Developed by Tolman to explain evidence that rats can incidentally acquire knowledge of their environment, and show that they have done so only when presented with a relevant task that makes use of that knowledge 2. Tolman's rats were able to learn the layout of a maze, even though they did not receive reinforcement on the maze 3. Latent Conditioning is an example of incidental learning, which means learning of information or behaviors without premeditation or intention Cognitive map 1. A mental representation of the spatial relationships among cues in a particular environment Outcome 1. Tolman's argument that animals (and by extension, humans) acquired knowledge that does not consist of stimulus-outcome, or stimulus-response, associations, gave impetus to the cognitive revolution in Psychology |
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Definition
| Origin 1. Formulated by E.L. Thorndike as part of his theory of Instrumental learning Use 1. The Law of Effect suggests that the consequences following behaviors will determine the likelihood that those behaviors will be repeated 2. Behaviors that lead to pleasant consequences are more likely to repeated, and behaviors that lead to unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated 3. Since it is difficult to determine whether a nonhuman animal is experiencing a pleasant or unpleasant state, Skinner defined reinforcement in terms of whether or not a stimulus (consequence) increased behavior; Skinner also replaced the concept of an unpleasant consequence with "punishment," as any consequence that reduces the behavior that produced it Similarity 1. Thorndike's Law of Effect is very similar to Skinner's Theory of Operant Conditioning, because Skinner used the Law of Effect as a starting point for his own research |
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| Definition A condition in which an individual believes that he or she has no control over significant life circumstances, which are perceived as predominantly negative Characteristics Belief that negative personal events are constant, that one has no control over the situation. Individual becomes passive, and therefore fails to notice or take advantage when control options become available. Also occurs in animals; is used as an animal model to understand human depression. Reformulated version of the Learned Helplessness Theory: People attribute their helplessness to a cause; either stable or unstable, global or specific, internal or external. Results are: chronic or acute, broad or narrow, and lower self-esteem or not |
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Definition
| A procedure in which something enjoyable is taken away when a particular behavior occurs, in order to decrease that behavior Origins Operant conditioning, B.F. Skinner Application Used to reduce undesirable behavior Preferred over Positive Punishment, as it is more effective, has fewer negative side effects, and is often perceived as more ethically acceptable. Examples: Grounding, time-out, removing TV privileges |
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| A procedure in which something unpleasant is removed or withheld when a particular behavior occurs, in order to increase that behavior Origins Operant conditioning; B.F. Skinner Application Used to increase desired behavior |
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| A form of operant conditioning involving negative reinforcement, in which an individual learns to terminate an unpleasant stimulus. Application:An important part of Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory of avoidance conditioning: learning to escape from the cues that cause fear 1. Learning to avoid unpleasant experiences by first learning fear cues that signal unpleasant stimulus/event 2. then, learning to escape fear-eliciting cues. Example: Training a dog to step on button to eliminate unpleasant loud noise |
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Definition
| 1. An operant-conditioning phenomenon, with no counterpart in classical conditioning 2. Occasional bursts of a target behavior that occur during early stages of the extinction process 3. The potential for extinction bursts means that when a temporary increase in the target behavior is unacceptable, an alternative to extinction should be used to reduce it 4. Extinction bursts may have an evolutionary benefit by enabling individuals who are persistent to obtain more rewards than those who give up easily. |
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| 1. Training a complex series of tasks by breaking it down into component parts, and training each component in succession, moving on to the next only after the subject has mastered a component Types 1. Forward Chaining: Begin training with the first component of the sequence, and then the second, and so on, until all components are mastered 2. Backward Chaining: Begin training with the last component of the sequence, and then the second-to-last, and so on, until all components are mastered Application 1. Used to teach complex series of behaviors |
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Definition
| 1. An operant-conditioning phenomenon, with no counterpart in classical conditioning 2. Occurs when constant-reinforcement schedules change from one level to another, altering the level or vigor of responding to the reinforcers 3. An exaggerated change in the frequency or vigor of a behavior 4. Positive contrast occurs when the rate or magnitude of reward for a behavior increases 5. Negative contrast occurs when the rate or magnitude of reward for a behavior decreases 6. Can occur in interpersonal relationships when one's expectations of another's behavior are not borne out |
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| Schedules of Reinforcement |
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Definition
| Rules in operant conditioning that determine when a particular operant response will be followed by reinforcement Types Continuous Reinforcement: Each response produces reinforcement. Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio(FR): A certain number of responses will produce reinforcement (e.g., FR 10 means every 10th response is reinforced). Variable Ratio(VR): A certain average number of responses will produce (e.g., VR 5 means that on average, every fifth response is reinforced). Fixed Interval(FI): After a specific interval following reinforcement, the next response will be reinforced (e.g., FI 30-sec means that following each reinforcement, 30 seconds must elapse before the next response will be reinforced). Variable Interval(VI): After an average interval following reinforcement, the next response will be reinforced (e.g., VI 2-min means that following each reinforcement, 2 minutes must elapse, on average, before the next response will be reinforced) Application Post-Reinforcement Pause:A temporary pause in responding that occurs following a reinforced response when behavior is maintained on a ratio schedule with a high value. Partial-Reinforcement Extinction Effect(PREE): Behavior is harder to extinguish if it has been maintained on an Intermittent Schedule of Reinforcement than if it was continuously reinforced. Behavior maintained on variable schedules of reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than those maintained on fixed schedules; because the variability in the number of required responses or the interval between available reinforcers makes it more difficult for the individual to notice that conditions have changed when extinction goes into effect |
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| Concurrent Schedule of Reinforcement |
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Definition
| Procedure in operant conditioning in which two or more separate reinforcement schedules are in effect, each associated with a different response; the subject has free choice among the different responses. Example:Worker paid for making red widgets at rate of one dollar per 10 units (FR 10) and yellow widgets at a rate of one dollar per five units (FR 5). Application: Used to study choice behavior. Many species, including humans, distribute responses in proportion to rate or magnitude of reinforcement (The Matching Law). Matching Law predicts that worker in above example will make twice as many yellow as red widgets (2:1 ratio). |
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Definition
| A procedure in which something unpleasant is applied when a particular behavior occurs, in order to decrease that behavior. Also known as Punishment by Contingent Stimulation Origins Operant conditioning, B.F. Skinner Application Used to reduce undesirable behavior. Relatively ineffective at diminishing behavior for long periods. Negative side effects (e.g., evokes anger, hostility; suppresses non-targeted behavior; provides incentive for deception). Should be used sparingly, and when it is essential that a child immediately desist from a dangerous behavior. Most effective when it is: immediate, certain, strongly aversive, clearly linked to a particular behavior, and applied on first occurrence of targeted behavior |
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Definition
| A procedure in which something pleasant is applied when a particular behavior occurs, in order to increase that behavior. Origins. Operant conditioning; B.F. Skinner. Application. Used to increase desired behavior. Over justification is a potential negative aspect, which occurs when reinforcement is provided for a behavior the individual already finds intrinsically rewarding, thereby decreasing its intrinsic value to the individual |
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Definition
| States that more-preferred behaviors can reinforce less-preferred behaviors Origins Operant conditioning; David Premack. Based on the theory that reinforcers are behaviors, rather than stimuli. Application Relative preference for a particular behavior can vary across situations. Relative preferences of two behaviors assessed by comparing base rates in a situation where the individual can do both; higher base rates mean higher preference. Can be used as a behavioral technique to increase a desirable behavior. Example: Making the opportunity to play videogames contingent on the completion of homework, with the aim of increasing the amount of homework a student completes |
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Definition
| Use 1. An Operant conditioning term, mostly used in reference to behavior modification 2. Means that the probability of that behavior occurring depends upon the likelihood that it will be reinforced or punished, as signaled by the cues or stimuli that are present 3. It may be obvious, involving entirely different behaviors in different stimulus situations, or subtle, involving only changes in the rate, temporal organization, or topography of the behavior 4. Stimulus Control is a useful technique in behavior modification, and it typically involves limiting the amount of settings in which a person is allowed to exhibit a particular unwanted behavior 5. Good Stimulus Control has been obtained when the individual reliably performs the target behavior only in the presence of particular cues, and does not perform other behaviors in those situations |
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Term
| Schacter's Two-Factor Theory |
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Definition
| 1. Explains avoidance behavior as resulting from a combination of Pavlovian Conditioning and Operant Conditioning (i.e., the two factors). Pavlovian Conditioning occurs first, when a cue is paired with an unpleasant unconditioned stimulus (US), resulting in a conditioned fear or anxiety response to that cue (CS). Operant Conditioning then occurs the individual performs a behavior that removes the fearful CS, and therefore, the likelihood of that same behavior recurring again is therefore increased due to negative reinforcement. The Pavlovian Conditioning of fear precedes the influence of negative reinforcement. Application: To the understanding and treatment of phobias and anxiety disorders. |
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| Shaping (Reinforcing Successive Approximations) |
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Definition
| 1.Involves rewarding the subject (often an animal) for successive behaviors that are closer and closer approximations of the desired response 2. Makes use of the combined influences of reinforcement and extinction 3. Used to speed the process of operant conditioning when the target response has a low likelihood of occurring spontaneously Applications 1. Field of behavior modification 2. Training operant responses in lab animals |
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Term
| Differential Reinforcement for Other Behavior |
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Definition
| Definition:An operant conditioning technique in which positive reinforcement is provided at pre-specified intervals, unless the individual engages in the targeted behavior. "Other Behavior" simply refers to any behavior performed, except that which one wants to eliminate: the target behavior. One omits reinforcement for the unwanted behavior and reinforces the wanted ones. Characteristics Decreases or eliminates the targeted behavior. Involves a negative behavior-reinforcer contingency with a positive reinforce. Similar to Negative Punishment, because individual does not receive positive reinforcement if he or she performs the unwanted behavior; difference is that more alternative behaviors will be positively reinforced with DRO. Application. Used to eliminate unwanted behavior that is being self-reinforced. A variant used in behavior modification provides reinforcement for every interval of time the unwanted behavior does not occur, and a particular desirable behavior does occur; most effective if other behavior is already part of individual's repertoire |
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Definition
| A phenomenon in operant conditioning in which reinforcement decreases the level of time and effort an individual chooses to dedicate to a particular behavior Characteristics Occurs when the behavior is intrinsically rewarding to the individual. It is a paradoxical phenomenon because reinforcement is supposed to increase behaviors that produce it Application May be used to modify behavior, by reducing an individual's motivation to perform an inappropriate behavior that he or she finds intrinsically rewarding |
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Definition
| Definition Temporary loss of a reinforcer's effectiveness due to its repeated presentation Application The effectiveness of something as a source of reinforcement increases as the individual becomes deprived of that thing (Drive-Reduction Theory of reinforcement), and decreases with Satiation. Believed to be a mechanism for maintaining biological homeostasis |
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Definition
| 1. Assertiveness Training entails learning effective communication skills, in a way that is neither passive nor aggressive, but effective and respectful of all people included in the transaction. 2. It's used to help passive or aggressive individuals improve their verbal and nonverbal communication skills 3. It is not about teaching one to be aggressive, but rather effective in communicating a message, as well as respectful of personal and others' boundaries Application 1. Benefits an individual's ability to resolve interpersonal conflict and achieve goals 2. Passive individuals learn to identify, respect and protect their boundaries, as well as communicate their needs and desires; it can thereby boost self-esteem 3. Aggressive individuals learn to express desires without violating the boundaries of others 4. Common techniques are role-playing and behavior rehearsal |
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Term
| Sports Performance and Strategies |
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Definition
| 1. Sports Psychology is the utilization of psychological principles and interventions for the enhancement of individual and team performance Group dynamics 1. Cohesion: Cohesiveness of team interacts with task structure and demands to affect outcomes 2. Collective Efficacy: Belief in team's ability to succeed affects performance Motivational factors 1. Motivation affects development of self-mastery and adherence to mental skills training 2. Extrinsic motivations tend to have negative outcomes, including: internalization of outcomes, depressive states, egocentrism, narcissism, and learned helplessness 3. Intrinsic motivations tend to have positive outcomes, including: focusing on self-development and adherence to mental skills training Mental skills training 1. Cognitive skills techniques a. Mental rehearsal, imagery, and visualization may improve performance through reinforcement, motor schemas, stages of motor learning, set hypothesis, and procedural memory development b. Visuo-motor behavior rehearsal involves establishing a relaxed state of mind, mental rehearsal, and physical rehearsal c. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy affects attitudes, internal dialogue, and development of self-monitoring - evaluating – consequating 2. Somatic skills techniques a. Biofeedback can directly affect physiological reactions involved in physical performance and/or indirectly affect states of anxiety or arousal b. Progressive muscle relaxation affects relaxation response, muscle awareness, and pain tolerance c. Meditation affects physical - psychological self-awareness |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A strategy used when encoding information to facilitate the formation of a long-lasting memory by associating new information with information that one already has stored in long-term memory Example 1. Associating each item in a grocery list with an image of one holding or eating the item and covertly rehearsing the items and their associated images Application 1. Levels-of-processing model uses it to explain how information in short-term memory is transferred into long-term memory 2. More meaningful elaboration ("deeper-processing" according to the "levels of processing" model of memory) is more beneficial for long-term memory (linking information to a conceptual, personal and/or social context). 3. Elaboration that involves vivid imagery is also highly effective 4. Shallow processing: encoding only physical qualities/surface level understanding, without attention to meaning; susceptible to rapid forgetting. 5. Maintenance rehearsal, in contrast to Elaborative Rehearsal, involves simple rote repetition; it only helps keep information active in short-term memory (working memory), and tends to have only small benefits for long-term memory |
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Definition
| 1. A term with many different applications in Psychology, but widely associated with an aspect of Beck's Cognitive Therapy for Depression, in which it refers to tasks of daily living that are prescribed to severely depressed individuals Examples 1. Going for a walk, doing the dishes, playing with the kids, shopping for groceries Application 1. Prescribed as "homework" to severely depressed people who are so low-functioning that they are unable or unwilling to put in the effort required for cognitive restructuring |
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Definition
| A type of critical thinking in which an individual follows well-established patterns of reasoning, in order to arrive at a single best solution to a problem. A number of possible solutions are analyzed to determine the one that will be most successful Source: J.P. Guilford Application: Facts, inferences, and logic are used in a deductive approach to generate a solution. A concrete form of intelligence. Closely related to Top-Down Processing (both Convergent Thinking and Top-Down Processing follow well-established patterns of reasoning for problem solving) |
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Definition
| 1. A type of information-processing used to formulate multiple novel solutions to a single problem Source 1. J.P. Guilford Characteristics 1. Considered to be creative and inductive 2. Closely related to brainstorming 3. A topic is broken down into components to gain insight into its various aspects 4. Relies heavily on creativity, flexibility, open-mindedness, unconventionality, and the willingness to take risks |
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Term
| Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation |
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Definition
| 1. Intrinsic Motivation is a desire to engage in a particular behavior to achieve an incentive, which derives from the behavior itself 2. Extrinsic Motivation, in contrast, is a desire to engage in a behavior to achieve an incentive that is not the behavior itself, but rather some consequence of the behavior Example 1. Someone who gardens for the joy of gardening is intrinsically motivated to garden 2. Someone who does not like gardening but does it for income, or to feed himself, is extrinsically motivated to garden Application 1. Providing extrinsic reward for a behavior may decrease Intrinsic Motivation to perform that behavior, but only if the person expects to receive the extrinsic reward 2. Extrinsic rewards used to control behavior (e.g., pay) decrease Intrinsic Motivation; those used to inform someone of excellent performance can increase Intrinsic Motivation |
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Term
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Definition
| A mildly aversive behavioral technique, used to diminish inappropriate behavior Components Restitution:The client is required to return the situation to its original condition, which preceded the inappropriate behavior Positive practice:The client is required to practice (or repeat) the appropriate behavior over and over again Physical guidance:A therapist, teacher, or parent may use physical guidance with clients who are unable to perform a task on their own |
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Definition
| 1. A type of modeling in which the therapist performs a desired behavior while the client watches, and through the use of aids, the client progresses toward the ability to perform the desired behavior on his or her own Origins 1. Developed by Albert Bandura Application 1. Often used to treat severe anxiety and phobias 2. Various performance aids may be provided during early stages of treatment, and are gradually removed as the client’s proficiency increases 3. Examples of aids: physical support; inanimate props to represent a feared animal; progressively increasing intervals over which the feared behavior is performed by the client 4. Positive experience of successful performance also helps eliminate the anxiety |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. An Operant procedure, which is a form of negative punishment (a.k.a. punishment by contingent withdrawal) 2. Involves the loss, removal, or withholding of a positive reinforcer, contingent on the performance of an undesirable behavior 3. Can be used as a behavior modification technique to reduce undesirable behavior, but consistency is critical for success The response cost must be implemented every time the targeted behavior occurs |
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Definition
| 1. Used to treat obsessions, compulsions, anxiety disorders, and addictive behaviors. Involves interrupting undesirable thoughts with a physical or mental cue. Negative thoughts are redirected toward positive thoughts. Treatment occurs in stages, with the therapist initially teaching the client to interrupt negative thoughts with a conspicuous cue, such as shouting "Stop," and with the client adopting the use of more subtle cues, such as imagery, in later stages. It is more effective in the treatment of obsessions, whereas flooding is the more effective treatment for compulsions It can be used as a stress-reduction technique. |
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Definition
| The procedure of removing and isolating a child from all forms of positive reinforcement for a period of time Application Used to decrease a child's undesirable behavior without the use of spanking or other traditional forms of positive punishment. Can be used as negative punishment to decrease unwanted behavior, or as negative reinforcement to increase desirable behavior. Most effective when used as negative reinforcement. Guidelines for effective application: Let child know why he is being sent to Time-Out. Do not use time limits. Provide verbal warning first, so child may choose appropriate alternative behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| A behavioral technique used to create a detailed description of a behavior, and identification of any environmental contingencies that contribute to and sustain the behavior Theorist:B.F. Skinner Application: Used to identify a client's behavioral problems and the sources of reinforcement that maintain them, so that a behavior modification program can be created. Determines what precedes disruptive behavior, and it's reinforcers. Aides in devising and implementing a behavior modification program. Goal: eliminate source of reinforcement that maintains undesirable behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Refers to the maximum amount of information or number of stimuli that one can attend to at once Application 1. Attentional Capacity Test (ACT) is used to measure attention in adults and children 2. Increases progressively with age in children, and reaches adult-levels around the age of 13 years 3. May underlie some aspects of developmental learning disabilities, ADHD, or conduct disorders 4. Attention Restoration Theory (ART) proposes that time spent in a green or natural environment has a beneficial, restorative effect on Attentional Capacity |
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Term
| Implosive Therapy (Implosion Therapy) |
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Definition
| Implosive Therapy: Psychodynamic treatment for phobias 1. Similar to Flooding, but differs in three ways: a. uses the patient's imagination of intense encounters with the feared stimulus, rather than direct exposure to the stimulus b. Uses imagined scenes that are exaggerated by the therapist, related to the client's worst fear fantasies c. The provoked anxiety is addressed within a psychodynamic approach, by connecting it with oral issues, death wish, Oedipus complex, sex. This is why Implosive Therapy is often described as a psychodynamic approach 2. Basic approach involves extinguishing anxiety by rapid repeated exposure to the feared stimulus or situation 3. Unconditioned stimuli linked to present anxiety not present during the session, therefore, the conditioned anxiety undergoes extinction (i.e., presentation of a conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus) 4. Not defined as "gradual" but involves some degrees of variation in the intensity of the stimuli presented and related degree of anxiety 5. First exposure tolerable and subsequent sessions elicit high anxiety 6. Example: A client with intense snake phobia asked, during first session, to imagine snake crawling on his arm, and in the following sessions, to imagine a snake crawling in lap, biting fingers, etc. 7. Client reflects on ability to tolerate imagined situation if it were real 8. Therapy lasts until emotional response to stimulus is extinguished 9. Effectiveness: Unclear, as studies have produced mixed results, and in some cases the benefits have been only temporary 10. Some have expressed ethical concerns, suggesting that it can cause additional trauma to the patient |
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Term
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Definition
| A procedure in which counterconditioning is used to replace an undesirable conditioned response with an incompatible and more desirable conditioned response to the same conditioned stimulus Origins Classical conditioning; Joseph Wolpe Application Used to substitute an undesirable conditioned response with a different conditioned response that is more desirable than, and incompatible with, the first response Useful in behavior therapy when prevalence of the conditioned stimuli responsible for an undesirable conditioned response cannot be controlled |
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Term
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Definition
| Definition: A Pavlovian conditioning technique in which an individual is conditioned to respond to a stimulus in a manner that is incompatible with a response that has already been conditioned to that stimulus Wolpe's Counterconditioning: client is trained to respond to a stimulus that results in an undesirable response (anxiety/fear) with a new, alternate response via relaxation techniques or positive imagery Application: A useful technique in behavior therapy when the prevalence of the CS responsible for an undesired CR cannot be controlled or avoided. Used in the reciprocal inhibition and systematic desensitization techniques. Effective in the treatment of phobias, anxiety disorders, and PTSD |
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Definition
| 1. A neurological disorder that affects a person's ability to perform learned and purposeful movements, despite the fact that there is nothing physiologically wrong with motor function, sensation, attention, coordination, motivation, or comprehension Types 1. Developmental: present from birth 2. Acquired: caused by brain injury, which may occur from a stroke, tumor, or trauma 3. Ideational: person cannot conceive of goal, so actions are haphazard and disorganized 4. Ideomotor: person can conceive of goal, but cannot conceive of component actions required to achieve it 5. Motor: person can conceive of goal and component actions, but cannot perform the actions 6. Verbal: the person has difficulties in correctly produce sounds, syllables and words, due to impairment in the use of the muscles needed to speak Application 1. Has a negative impact on a person's ability to plan, select, and sequence the motor execution of movements |
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Definition
| Continuing to practice well beyond the point at which the material is known or the task is performed efficiently Characteristics Overlearned behaviors are highly resistant to extinction, which is beneficial in the case of useful skills, but undesirable in cases of learned behaviors that are unwanted or pathological Cognitive effects of overlearning include better long-term recall, and automaticity of skills. Automaticity is the ability to perform tasks implicitly without having to consciously think of the low-level details involved in doing so. Automaticity of a skill requires overlearning. |
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Definition
| Interference Theory states that forgetting is sometimes caused by information competing with other similar information for access to memory. Types of interference: Retroactive: Occurs when new memories interfere with the ability to recall older memories. Proactive: Occurs when old memories interfere with the ability to recall new information. Output: Occurs when the act of recalling information from memory interferes with the ability to recall other information; is due to the limited capacity and duration of working memory (a.k.a. short-term memory), and it often occurs when people are prevented from rehearsing newly-learned information. |
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Definition
| 1. A proactive approach to teaching in which the teacher assists the child in acquisition of new concepts that are just beyond the child's current level of understanding 2. It is called Scaffolding because new knowledge is built upon existing knowledge Origins 1. Developmental psychology; Lev Vygotsky Application 1. School psychologists often use Scaffolding as a temporary means to facilitate students as they learn new concepts; ultimate goal is to help the student become more self-reliant 2. An associated concept is "zone of proximal development," referring to one's current level of knowledge or understanding. Related Concepts 1. Guided Participation: one is guided by a more knowledgeable person to learn new behaviors. 2. Self-Efficacy: the belief in one's ability to complete specific actions that will produce desired outcomes. 3. Scaffolding and Guided Participation increase an individual's self-efficacy |
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Term
| Age Associated Memory Impairment |
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Definition
| 1. A deficit in cognitive abilities that is caused by the normal effects of aging 2. The memory decline in AAMI cannot be attributed to Alzheimer's disease, dementia, senility, or any other cognitive disorders 3. This condition appears to be more severe in Western, industrialized nations Characteristics 1. Deficits in cognitive processing speed, problem-solving, use of working memory, cued recall, and free recall 2. Mixed results with prospective memory (deficits in lab experiments; no deficits in naturalistic setting) Application 1. Most elderly people develop strategies to compensate for the cognitive deficits of AAMI 2. Intellectual functioning in the elderly is most closely linked to health status 3. A healthy diet, restricted in cholesterol and saturated fats, may counteract age-related memory loss that is related to brain's inflammation |
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Definition
| Use 1. It is used to store facts, concepts, and general knowledge 2. It is a subcategory of explicit memory, a.k.a. declarative memory, (the other subcategory is episodic memory), and it therefore includes only information that can be consciously recalled 3. It is available in working memory for longer periods of time than is episodic memory Impairments 1. Long-term Semantic Memory is impaired in people with amnesia following damage to the medial temporal lobe region (hippocampus, parahippocampal cortex) or to the mediodorsal thalamus (as in Korsakoff's disease) 2. Despite their semantic-memory impairments, amnesic patients display normal procedural memory abilities, and also normal Classical conditioning |
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Definition
| A U-shaped relationship between the position of an item within a list of items on a free recall test. Superior recall of items near the beginning of the list is referred to as the primacy effect, and superior recall of items near the end of the list is referred to as the recency effect. The recency effect. Reflects the operation of short-term memory. The primacy effect Involves long-term memory. Rehearsal (either overt or covert) is believed to be one of the mechanisms that underlies the primacy effect, as items at the beginning of the list are more likely to be rehearsed during the course of learning the list. Recency-primacy shift The recency effect goes away when the retention interval between learning and memory testing is more than a few minutes long (beyond short-term memory), but the primacy effect remains |
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Term
| State-Dependent Learning/Memory |
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Definition
| Learning phenomenon 1. A phenomenon in which learned information is better remembered when a person is in the same physiological or psychological state as when the original learning occurred 2. When people are in a particular mood, they are better able to remember material they've learned and experiences they've had when they were in that same mood in the past. This is referred to as mood-congruent memory. Drug effect 1. State-Dependent learning involving various drug states has been extensively studied, and there is evidence that it can occur with alcohol and marijuana 2. At higher doses, the depressant effects of the drugs reduce the amount learned during study, which can overwhelm state-dependent effect Context-dependent learning 1. State-Dependent learning is similar to context-dependent learning It is easier to recall information when the learning and test environment are the same, than when they are different |
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Definition
| DefinitionA graphic depiction of forgetting over time, showing that the rate of forgetting is fastest soon after a learning experience, and becomes progressively slower as time goes by OriginsEarly studies of memory; Hermann EbbinghausInterpretations Trace-decay hypothesis: Memory traces automatically dissipate as time goes by, (unless reactivated by recall or restudy); little supporting evidence. Interference Theory: Forgetting occurs over time because new information interferes with retrieval of old information. Overwriting hypothesis: Memories are altered by later events, so original memories no longer exist. Application. Mnemonic techniques can improve retention by slowing forgetting rate in short-term and long-term memory |
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Definition
| Use 1. It involves the acquisition and retention of verbal stimuli such as letters, words, digits, word-fragments, or nonsense syllables 2. It involves two basic tasks: serial learning and paired-associate learning Serial and paired-associate learning often occur in the same situation, such as when memorizing a sign-in ID and password for an e-mail account 3. Verbal learning can be facilitated through the use of mnemonics, such as elaborative rehearsal, chunking, the method of loci, and visual imagery Serial learning 1. Individuals are required to reproduce items from a list in their original order 2. A common example would be learning and recalling the alphabet Paired-associate learning 1. One is required to verbally respond with a particular word whenever another word with which it has been paired is presented 2. A common example occurs when a person learns the vocabulary of a new language, and that process involves being presented with a list of foreign words and learning to produce the English translation of each one |
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Definition
| Definition 1. Attention focused on specific stimuli in the environment while other stimuli are ignored Characteristics 1. Necessitated by limited cognitive capacity, because vast amounts of information constantly impinge on our sensory systems 2. An adaptive function that ensures that important information will be processed 3. Strongly influenced by associative learning (Classical and Operant Conditioning) and habituation 4. Declines in older aged individuals; on simple tasks, age differences can be overcome with practice Application 1. Change Blindness: failure to notice significant changes in a visual scene, due to distraction. 2. In attention Blindness: inability to perceive features of a visual scene if those features are not attended to. 3. Dichotic Listening: two stories are presented simultaneously, one to each ear, and the person must follow one while ignoring the other. |
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Definition
| Purpose 1. It serves to keep information active and available so that it can be used in various cognitive tasks for a brief period of time 2. It is an alternative term used to refer to short-term memory, and differs from it only inasmuch as Working Memory is part of a multicomponent model of short-term memory 3. It has a limited capacity, which is about seven items, plus or minus two, in most people 4. Information can be maintained in Working Memory by rehearsing it, either overtly or covertly Three components 1. The central executiveThe central executive is the component of Working Memory that directs one's attention to various tasks that make use of the information in Working Memory 2. The phonological loop The phonological loop serves to maintain verbal information in Working Memory by continuously repeating it 3. The visuospatial scratchpad The visuospatial scratchpad is the visual portion of Working Memory Proactive interference 1. It is highly succeptible to proactive interference, in which information that is already in memory disrupts the formation of new, similar memories 2. The more similar the old and new information is, the more likely that proactive interference will occur |
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Term
| Short-Term Memory (Working Memory) |
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Definition
| Memory for information over a relatively short period of time (ranging from seconds to several minutes). It has a limited capacity, which typically ranges from five to nine items (seven plus-or-minus two). Another term for short-term memory is working memory. Its neural mechanisms do not require the synthesis of new proteins. It is dependent on the functions of the prefrontal cortex, with different areas of this being implicated in the short-term storage of different kinds of information |
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Definition
| Definition An archaic term referring to the first level of memory in the Dual-Store Model of memory. Later replaced with the concept of short-term memory. Characteristics Essentially a combination of sensory memory and working memory. Incoming information is held and manipulated before encoded into secondary memory. Fragile, and brief, lasts for several seconds. Has limited capacity of seven (plus or minus two) units of information |
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Definition
| 1. The ability to remember to perform an intended task in the future 2. Examples of PM: Remembering to pick up a friend, stop for groceries, take out the trash 3. Has two phases: a. Establishing the intention to do something b. Remembering to do it at the intended time 4. Errors in PM often referred to as absentmindedness 5. Example: Getting up to get something from laundry room, arriving and being unable to remember the intended task 6. Absentmindedness most likely to occur when multitasking 7. Due to dividing attention, like focusing on ongoing activities and on the task that needs to be performed in the future at the same time 8. Absentmindedness is most likely in highly familiar surroundings, when automatic behaviors are used (including driving) 9. Absentmindedness implicated in car accidents, plane collisions, industrial accidents 10. Distraction, preoccupation, or time pressure will also increase the chances of mistakes 11. PM does not benefit from repetition or rehearsal 12. Benefits from the use of external aides, i.e.: using notes, placing objects in conspicuous locations 13. It may also benefit from creating mental images (thinking of a gigantic cat waiting for you at home and ready to eat you, to remember to buy cat food) |
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| Definition: 1. A false memory is a memory of an event that did not happen, or a distortion of an event that did occur 2. Also referred to as paramecia and illusory memory Application: 1. Determinationthat a memory is false requires corroboration by external facts 2. Children are more prone to false memories than are adults 3. People who rate high in measures of suggestibility are more prone to false memories 4. There is evidence that hypnosis results in a more false memories than true ones 5. People under hypnosis tend to reconstruct memories to fill gaps in memory 6. False memories throw into question the value of accounts of childhood abuse that are obtained during hypnosis; they also challenge the reliability of eye-witness testimony |
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| Definition 1. A memory disorder that can occur after many years of heavy alcohol consumption Etiology 1. Actually caused by thiamine deficiency (poor diet, alcohol decreases absorption of B1 in gut, and reduces B1 utilization by brain cells) 2. Neuronal death occurs in mediodorsal thalamus and mammillary nuclei, but most evidence implicates the former in the cause of the memory impairment Characteristics 1. An advanced and irreversible stage of Wernicke-Korsakoff encephalopathy 2. Characterized by anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia for declarative memory Anterograde memory impairment more severe than retrograde 3. Short-term memory and nondeclarative long-term memory are relatively normal 4. Patients tend to confabulate in order to fill in memory gaps Thiamine-deficiency in rats 1. Used to model etiology, neuropathology, and memory deficits of Korsakoff's Syndrome |
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Definition
| Definition:A cognitive term referring to the process (or processes) involved in the translation of raw sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory. It is the first of the three stages of memory (Encoding, Retention, Retrieval). Types:Acoustic encoding of sound information (words); visual encoding of images; semantic encoding organizes information into structured knowledge. Characteristics: Treatments that affect memory test performance only when administered prior to the study phase are inferred to affect the encoding process(es). Recall is best when information is encoding semantically. Information in short-term memory is mostly encoded acoustically and visually. Information in long-term memory is often encoded semantically. |
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| Definition:The conscious recollection of past personal experiences, including information about what happened, when and where it happened, and the context in which it happened. Also known as autobiographical memory. It is a type of declarative (or explicit) memory (the other type is semantic memory) Causes and characteristics of pathology: Declines naturally in elderly persons, and more severely in cases of age-associated memory impairment. Impaired by damage to either the medial temporal lobes or the mediodorsal thalamus. Both anterograde and retrograde amnesia for episodic information follow such damage. Special forms:Flashbulb memories, in which episodic information surrounding a traumatic or highly arousing event, including associated emotional states, are vividly recalled. |
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Definition
| Process 1. An encoding process in which an item is associated with other items in some way that enables one to have a unitary mental representation of that compound of items 2. It can be viewed as a process of recoding information, and its functional significance is to extend the amount of information that one can hold in short-term, or working, memory Increased capacity 1. Although the storage capacity of short-term memory is fixed at seven units, plus or minus two, the amount of information in each unit can be increased by Chunking. The total amount of information held in short-term memory depends on the size and complexity of the chunked units of information 2. Many mnemonic techniques make use of Chunking |
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Definition
| 1. A process, or set of processes, by which memories that are initially stored in a labile state in short-term memory are gradually stabilized into resilient long-term memories. 2. Consolidation can be disrupted and memory lost if brain undergoes trauma during process. Origins 1. Concept of memory consolidation originated in early 1900s 2. Patients with brain damage reported "temporally graded retrograde amnesia," manifesting as: a. Being unable to recall events preceding trauma or injury (retrograde amnesia) b. The more recent the memory, the more likely its loss c. Example: Stroke patient has difficulty remembering events that occurred during the three-month period preceding it. Unable to recall anything from two weeks before stroke; older memories, from several months before the stroke, unaffected 3. Standard theory of consolidation: Recent memories not yet consolidated are lost due to stroke or trauma, whereas older memories, already consolidated, are resistant to effects of trauma Application 1. Any event that produces massive disruption of brain function, even for only a few moments, can interrupt memory consolidation 2. Temporally graded retrograde amnesia may occur following brain trauma or injury, particularly if medial temporal lobes (including hippocampus), or dorsomedial thalamus are affected 3. It also occurs following electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), often used to effectively treat severe depression 4. Consolidation processes envisaged as brain mechanism: influential theory states that newly acquired memories initially dependent on hippocampus, and gradually stored in the neocortex 5. Once this process concludes, these memories are no longer dependent on the hippocampus for retrieval |
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Definition
| 1. Memory for information over periods ranging from several hours to several years. It has nearly unlimited capacity in terms of how much information it can store. Information from short-term memory is converted to long-term memory through the process of consolidation. Neural mechanisms of long-term memory involve structural changes to neurons and synapses, which requires protein synthesis within the affected neurons. The ability to form new long-term memories is impaired in people with damage to medial-temporal lobe structures, including the hippocampus, or with damage to the medial region of the thalamus (Korsakoff's syndrome). Mnemonic Devices: mental techniques Acronym: a word with each letter acting as a cue to an idea to remember. Acrostic: a sentence with the first letter of each word acting as a cue for the idea to remember Loci method: imagining placing the items you want to remember in a specific location in a room. Chaining: create a story where the word or idea works as a cue to the next word or idea |
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Definition
| 1. Involves the nonconscious utilization of previously acquired information 2. Formally assessed using tests of priming, such as the word-stem completion test 3. Includes procedural memory, and Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning phenomena 4. Typically not impaired in individuals with amnesia following brain injury, or with age-related memory impairment 5. May be affected in individuals with Parkinson's disease |
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Definition
| A knowledge structure in memory that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem-solving Characteristics Contains information about the common or typical aspects of a familiar and recurring situation, event, or context, and how these aspects are related to each other (for example, the steps involved in eating at a restaurant) Application Used to organize current knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding. Help us understand the world around us. Help us generate expectations of what is likely to be true, or what is likely to occur; help us to notice unusual occurrences. Schema implies that our episodic memories are reconstructions of our past experiences, not reproductions of them |
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Term
| Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon |
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Definition
| Abbreviated TOT (tip-of-the-tongue). Results from a failure of retrieval, the final stage of memory. Appears to be a universal phenomenon, as it is known to occur in many cultures. Not prevented by memory aides, such as rehearsal. Often confused with the phenomenon of "feeling of knowing," but different in that the TOT phenomenon occurs involuntarily, whereas the feeling of knowing involves thoughtful assessment of whether one would be able to recognize the correct answer to a question, despite failure to recall the correct answer |
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| Definition: The tendency of people to be better at remembering incompleted tasks than completed tasks. Example: A waiter is much better at remembering an order before it is served than after it is served; people are good at remembering tasks about which they are procrastinating. Interpretation: Uncompleted tasks create "psychic tension", which acts as a motivator to complete them. Attributed to the benefits of covert rehearsal on working memory and long-term memory. Distinct from Prospective Memory (remembering to do something). Application: May partially account for how we can leave a problem unsolved, and while doing something else, have the solution come "from out of nowhere" |
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Definition
| Involves the conscious recollection of events, or episodes. Also referred to as declarative memory Includes Episodic memory, which is memory for personal experiences. Semantic memory, which is memory for factual information Impairments In individuals with amnesia following damage to the medial-temporal lobe region, or the medial thalamus |
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Definition
| Response to a stimulus gets progressively weaker with repeated presentation of that stimulus. Occurs frequently throughout our daily lives, but normally without conscious awareness. Similar to the effects of adaptation within sensory organs, but habituation is a process that occurs in the brain. Habituation is a "non-associative" process: It does not involve learning about associations among external stimuli or events (e.g., CSs and USs or response-outcome contingencies). The more invariable the stimulus is across occasions, the more quickly habituation will occur. Interval between successive presentations: shorter intervals usually produce habituation more quickly than longer intervals. Occurs more slowly with stimuli of high intensity or complexity, than with weaker or simpler stimuli. A change in the stimulus features can produce dishabituation. Assessed: In humans by measuring arousal through physiological measures, such as heart rate or blood pressure. In animals by measuring arousal or orienting responses. |
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Definition
| 1. A process in which a salient stimulus or a context causes an individual to subsequently display a stronger response to another stimulus than would otherwise be expected a. May occur when an individual experiences a highly salient stimulus, followed soon after by a different stimulus, normally eliciting a weak or no response b. The salient stimulus or context sensitizes the individual so that he or she now shows a stronger-than-usual response to the normally weak stimulus 2. Example 1: Joe hears a gunshot in his backyard, then startles when his cat jumps on a windowsill; Joe would normally not be startled by cat, but was sensitized by the gunshot 3. Example 2: You are walking down a dark alley alone and late at night, and you're feeling nervous. A cat jumps off a fence and knocks a lid off a trashcan; the clatter startles you, leaving you breathing fast and your heart racing 4. Both exaggerated responses to otherwise normal noises (weak or innocuous stimuli) Characteristics 1. Results in increased strength or probability of a response to an innocuous stimulus 2. Short-lasting phenomenon; effects greatest on first few occurrences of a repeatedly presented stimulus, but fade quickly and then extinguish, as habituation grows 3. Sensitization is a non-associative form of learning (same as habituation) because individual is not learning about any associations that exist among stimuli (as in classical conditioning), nor among behaviors and consequences (like in operant conditioning) Application 1. Occurs during the first few occurrences of a repeated stimulus, when the orienting- response to the stimulus increases temporarily, before decreasing, as habituation progressively grows |
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Definition
| Definition: Emotional states are determined by responses of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) Central nervous system (CNS) processes ANS information to produce appropriate emotional state Physiological responses give rise to corresponding emotions Example:Someone encounters a bear, experiences increased heart rate, then fear Competing Theory:Cannon-Bard Theory runs counter by arguing that emotions cause ANS response |
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Definition
| Component of memory 1. Sensory Memory is the first component of the multicomponent, or multistore, model of memory, and it precedes short-term memory 2. Sensory Memory stores large amounts of sensory/perceptual information for very brief periods of time, which is necessary for one to identify what is being sensed and encode a relatively more permanent representation of it in short-term memory Types of Sensory Memory 1. We have five types of sensory memory, one for each of our senses; however, only the visual and auditory forms of sensory memory have been extensively studied 2. Sensory memory for visual information is referred to as Iconic memory, while Sensory Memory for auditory information is referred to as Echoic memory 3. Iconic memory lasts for less than a second, whereas Echoic memory lasts as long as two seconds 4. Echoic memory plays a central role in the perception and comprehension of speech 5. Both Iconic memory and Echoic memory are highly susceptible to interference by the presentation of new visual or auditory stimuli, respectively |
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Definition
| One stimulus (the masking stimulus) prevents the perception of another brief stimulus (the target stimulus), because they occur close together in time; person only perceives the masking stimulus Types Forward masking: Masking stimulus precedes target stimulus Backward masking: Target stimulus precedes masking stimulus Simultaneous masking: Masking and target stimuli presented at the same time Application Target stimulus must be very brief, or masking will typically not occur |
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Definition
| Definition 1. A hypothesis that some people have genetic predispositions (diathesis) to acquire certain mental or physical disease, and the likelihood that the disease will develop depends on the cumulative effects of stress experienced by the person throughout life Application 1. Four main ways in which social environment effect diathesis (innate predisposition): it can trigger it, it can compensate for it, it can help prevent genetically predisposed behaviors, and it can moderate the development of positive genetic potentials though significant and enduring relationships 2. Holmes and Rahe, the creators of the famous Life Events Rating Scale (1967), largely contributed to make the Diathesis-Stress Model popular over the last 40 years, mainly by focusing on how life stressors affect one's health 3. One of the most important applications of this model is the Diathesis-Stress hypothesis about development of schizophrenia: Schizophrenia is the result of abnormal dopamine transmission; environmental stressors increase cortisol levels, and cortisol influences dopamine transmission, exacerbating the abnormality in predisposed individuals and triggering the onset of illness |
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