Term
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Definition
}Neither good nor bad, good= education, bad= propaganda
}Thoughts to persuasive messages analyzed
}The goal is always behavior change- the way in which people get thinking is most important |
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Term
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Definition
}Central route to persuasion- occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts- more thoughtful, audience is analytical and motivated
}Peripheral route to persuasion- occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as speaker’s attractiveness- use heuristics, audience is less involved |
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Term
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Definition
}Communicator- must possess credibility- believability and is perceived as both expert and trustworthy
}Expertise- perceived knowledge, speaking confidently, charismatic, energetic most convincing |
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Term
| Elements of Persuasion Cont. |
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Definition
}Trustworthiness- higher if audience believes communicator is not trying to persuade them.
}We perceive as sincere those who argue against their own self interest- be willing to suffer for beliefs, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela
}Trustworthiness and credibility increase when people talk fast |
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Term
| Elements of Persuasion Cont. |
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Definition
}Attractiveness- having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference
}Forms- physical attractiveness, similarity- we tend to like people who are like us, salespeople taught to “mimic and mirror.” |
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Term
| Elements of Persuasion Cont. |
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Definition
}The Message Content- depends on the audience, reason vs. emotion etc.
}Good feelings- enhance emotion partly by enhancing positive thinking and partly by linking good feelings with the message
}As measured by implicit attitude test, products associated with humor were better liked |
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Term
| Elements of Persuasion Cont. |
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Definition
}Fear- research shows that the more frightened and vulnerable people feel, the more they respond
}Works best if message leads people to fear severity and likelihood of event but to perceive a solution and feel capable of implementing it
}One vs. two sided appeals |
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Term
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Definition
}Primacy effect- all things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence, “first is best”
}Recency effect- information presented last sometimes has the most influence. Recencyeffects are less common than primacy effects, forgetting creates the recency effect |
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Term
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Definition
}Channel of Communication- the way the message is delivered, face-to-face, in writing, on film or in some other way
}Repetition increases its fluency, which increases believability
}Experience based attitudes are more confident, more stable and less vulnerable to attack (as opposed to passively) |
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Term
| Personal vs. Media Influence |
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Definition
}Studies demonstrate that major influence on us is not media but contact with other people
}Two-step flow of communication- process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders (talk show hosts, editorial columnists, doctors, scientists), who in turn influence others |
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Term
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Definition
}More lifelike the medium, the more persuasive its message: live (face to face), videotaped, audiotaped, written (but best comprehended and recalled when written) |
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Term
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Definition
}Age- many political attitudes formed by age 18
}Adolescent and early adulthood experiences are formative partly because they create deep and lasting impressions, “reminiscence bump”
}Distraction disarms counter arguing |
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Term
| Stimulate people’s thinking… |
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Definition
}Use rhetorical questions
}Multiple speakers (i.e. each speaker voices different argument)
}By making people feel responsible for evaluating or passing along the message
}By repeating the message
}By getting people’s undistracted attention |
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Term
| Extreme Persuasion- Cults |
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Definition
}Cult- group typically characterized by 1) distinctive rituals and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or person, 2) isolation from the surrounding “evil” culture and 3) a charismatic leader
}Compliance breeds acceptance- behavioral rituals, public recruitment, fundraising |
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Term
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Definition
}Foot- in-the-Door technique, i.e. initially monetary offerings are first voluntary, then mandatory
}The Message- emotional, warm, accepting, very welcoming for lonely or depressed people
}Group effects- power of group to shape member behavior, “social implosion”- external ties weaker until group collapses inward socially |
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Term
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Definition
}Therapy, self help groups, sororities, religious affiliation, politics, educators- successfully utilize many of the same tactics, very blurry line
}Persuasive power is neither good nor bad, but is how we use it which determines whether its effect is destructive or constructive |
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Term
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Definition
}Challenging Beliefs
}Developing Counterarguments
}Attitude inoculation- exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available (think flu vaccine)
}Children and advertising- prey on gullible, vulnerable |
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Term
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Definition
Group- two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as “us.”
Meets different human needs: to affiliate, to achieve and to gain a social identity |
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Term
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Definition
Helps or hinders performance???
Social facilitation: 1) the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present
2) the strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others\
Research: social arousal facilitates dominant responses, whether right or wrong |
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Term
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Definition
Athletes, actors and musicians do better when performing, i.e. home field advantage, 55-70%
Crowding- intensifies positive or negative reactions, sometimes interferes with well learned behaviors, Why??
Evaluation apprehension- concern for how others are evaluating us, dominant responses are strongest when we feel we are being evaluated |
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Term
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Definition
Social loafing- the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable
Getting “lost in the crowd” decreases evaluation concerns
Collectivist cultures and women tend to exhibit less social loafing |
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Term
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Definition
People in groups generally loaf less when the task is challenging, appealing, or involving
Groups members will loaf less when they are friends or they feel identified with or indispensable to their group, cohesiveness enhances effort |
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Term
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Definition
Deindividuation- loss of self awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad
Group size- bigger the group, more group members can lose self awareness and become more prone |
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Term
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Definition
Anonymity- dimmed lighting, sunglasses increases perceived anonymity and willingness to cheat or behave selfishly.
Studies indicates that anonymity contributes to incivility
Depersonalize self- uniforms, face paint, masks |
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Term
| Losing Sense of Self Cont. |
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Definition
Reicher et al, 1998- being anonymous makes one less self conscious, more group conscious, and more responsive to cues present in the situation
Self awareness- a self conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions- more consistency between words and action |
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Term
| Do Groups Intensify Emotions |
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Definition
Group polarization- group produced enhancement of members’ pre-existing tendencies; a strengthening of the members average tendency, not a split within the group
Risky shift phenomenon- group decisions are usually riskier- juries, business committees, military organizations
Discussion typically strengthens the average inclination of group members |
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Term
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Definition
People associate with others whose attitudes are similar to their own
A gang/pack is more dangerous than individual parts
Internet chat rooms- religion, politics, music, other hobbies
Terrorist organizations- isolate from belief systems, dehumanize targets, no dissent- usually bred by a long process |
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Term
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Definition
Active participation in a group produces more attitude change. Verbal commitment enhances impact. More they repeat ideas, more they rehearse and validate them
Social comparison- evaluating one’s opinions and abilities by comparing oneself to others
Pluralistic ignorance- false impression of what most other people are thinking and feeling, or how they are responding |
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Term
| Explaining Polarization Cont. |
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Definition
To overcome pluralistic ignorance, one must encourage others to reveal and reinforce their shared reactions
Can cause “bandwagon effect” movies, books, fashion etc.
Factual and value laden situations, persuasive and social comparison respectively |
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Term
| Groups hinder or assist Decision making |
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Definition
Groupthink- “mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.” Irving Janis (1971)
What contributes: cohesive group, isolation of group from dissenting viewpoints, directive leader |
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Term
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Definition
Symptoms of Groupthink:
Overestimate might and right-an illusion of invulnerability, unquestioned beliefs in the group’s morality
Close minded- rationalization, stereotyped view of opponent
Uniformity- conformity pressure, self-censorship, illusion of unanimity |
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Term
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Definition
Direct leadership= poor decisions re: people feel too weak or insecure to speak up
Smarter decisions, socially attuned members who take turns speaking
Groups prefer supporting over challenging info
When members look to others for acceptance, approval, they may suppress disagreeable thoughts |
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Term
| Critiquing Groupthink Cont. |
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Definition
Groups with diverse perspectives outperform groups of like-minded people, more creativity
“Truth springs from argument amongst friends.” -David Hume |
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Term
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Definition
Be impartial-
Encourage critical evaluation
Occasionally subdivide the group, then reunite
Before implementing, utilize a “second chance” meeting to voice lingering doubts
People feel more productive in a group, generate more good ideas individually
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Term
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Definition
Consistency- stick to position
Self Confidence- consistency and persistence convey self confidence
Deflections from the Majority- when minority consistently doubts the majority wisdom, majority members are freer to express doubts and may switch position
Leadership- process by which group members motivate and guide the group |
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Term
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Definition
Task leadership- leadership that organizes work, sets standards and focuses on goals
Social leadership- leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict and offers support
“We” rather than “I”- good leader enhance a groups identity
Transformational leadership- leadership that, enabled by a leader’s vision and inspiration, exerts significant influence |
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Term
| Human Nature and Cultural Diversity |
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Definition
Task leadership- leadership that organizes work, sets standards and focuses on goals
Social leadership- leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict and offers support
“We” rather than “I”- good leader enhance a groups identity
Transformational leadership- leadership that, enabled by a leader’s vision and inspiration, exerts significant influence |
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Term
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Definition
•Physical and psychological legacy, survive and reproduce
•Negative emotions (sadness, anger, depression) have an adaptive role- ways of motivating us to cope with survival challenges
•Social questions, whom to trust? Whom to help? Whom to mate? |
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Term
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Definition
•Culture- the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
•Diversity in languages, customs, behaviors confirms that we are socially programmed |
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Term
| Culture and Behavior Cont. |
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Definition
•Norms- standards for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior
•Examples: expressiveness, punctuality, personal space
•Cultural similarity- “theory of mind” is universal, friendship norms, universal trait conditions (O.C.E.A.N.S.), universal status norms, incest taboo, norms of war- is all fair? |
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Term
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Definition
•Gender- the characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, by which people define male and female
•Must be assigned a gender???
•Friendships- female ,more relational, welcome more help and more attuned to others relationships
•Male- focus on tasks/ activities, connections with groups |
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Term
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Definition
•Vocations- males value earning, promotion, challenge, power
•Females value good hours, personal relationships, opportunities to help others
•Females- smile more often and described as having more empathy- the vicarious experience of another’s feelings; putting oneself in another’s shoes |
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Term
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Definition
•Females- more skilled at expressing emotions non-verbally
•Males- strong tendency toward power and achievement, greater concern for social dominance (Mr. and Mrs., “his and hers”)
•Across cultures, people perceive leaders as having more culturally masculine traits- more confident, forceful, independent, outspoken |
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Term
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Definition
•Aggression- physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone, males vs. females
•Sexuality- men, more fantasies, more permissive attitudes, seek more partners, etc.courtship- males offer money, gifts, commitment in implicit exchange for sex |
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Term
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Definition
•Females invest their reproductive opportunities carefully, look for signs of resource and commitment
•Nature selects traits that help send one’s genes into the future- yearnings are genes’ way of making more genes, emotions are involved
•Men- strive to offer what women desire- external resources and physical protection |
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Term
| Evolution and Gender Cont. |
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Definition
•“Male achievement is ultimately a courtship display” Wilson (1994)
•Across cultures, both women men desire kindness, love and mutual attraction
•Jealousy- men, sexually jealousy, women, emotional jealousy |
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Term
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Definition
•Gender role- set of expectations for males and females
•Gender roles vary with culture
•Gender roles very over time- women- 47% of med students, lawyers, 50%
•Peer transmitted culture |
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Term
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Definition
•Interaction- a relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment)
•Research- experience uses genes to change brain (Quartz & Sejnowski, 2002), environmental stimuli can activate genes that produce new cell branching receptors |
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Term
| Genes, Culture, Gender Cont. |
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Definition
•Epigenetics- explores molecular mechanisms by which environments trigger genetic expression
•Cultural norms- men taller than women= bio and culture
•Across the world, women score higher on extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness |
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Term
| Genes, Culture, Gender Cont. |
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Definition
•“The opposite of a trivial truth is plainly false. The opposite of a great truth is also true.” -physicist Niels Bohr
•The power of the situation “social influence” vs. the power of the person- competition between each??? |
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Term
| Genes, Culture and Gender Cont. |
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Definition
•Interaction occurs in at least three ways:
-a given social situation often affects different people differently
-people often chose their situations
-people often create their situations, something we make for ourselves |
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Term
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Definition
¨Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
¨Hostile terrorism- aggression that springs from anger; goal is to injure
¨Instrumental aggression- aggression that aims to injure but only as a means to some end (most acts of terrorism, 9/11 example) |
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Term
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Definition
¨Instinctive behavior- an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species
¨Neural influence- no area of the brain controls it. Prefrontal cortex- acts like an emergency brake for aggression, smaller in those who are murderers or antisocial
¨Genetic influences- temperament (how intense and reactive we are) observed in infancy usually endures |
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Term
| Theories of Aggression Cont. |
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Definition
¨Biochemical influences- Alcohol- 65% of homicides, 4/10 prisoners convicted of violent crimes were drinking
-Testosterone- hormonal levels, after 25 yr., male testosterone levels and rates of violent crime decrease altogether, wider faced men display more aggression
-Poor diet- studies with prison population |
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Term
| Aggression as Response to Frustration |
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Definition
¨Frustration-aggression theory- theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress
¨Frustration- the blocking of goal directed behavior, the gap between expectations and attainment- examples in the U.S.?
¨Displacement- ???
¨Relative deprivation- perception one is less well off than others with who one compares oneself |
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Term
| Aggression as Learned Behavior |
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Definition
¨Rewards of aggression- child intimidates others, aggression increases, paying ransom to pirates off Somalian coast (150 million in 2008),
¨Terrorism- “kill one, frighten ten thousand”
¨Social learning theory- theory that we learn social behavior by observing intimidating and being rewarded and punished |
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Term
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Definition
¨Family- aggressive kids have parents who had physically punitive parents, disciplined by modeling aggression with screaming, slapping, beating
¨The Culture- teenage gangs, “macho” images admired, economic inequality |
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Term
| Some influences of Aggression |
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Definition
¨Aversive Incidents- pain, heat, attacks
¨Arousal- arousal fuels emotions, love never so passionate as after a fight or fright- date to a horror movie
- Sensation seekers- crave being in a heightened state of arousal, need “rush” of stimulation, more likely to be aggressive |
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Term
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Definition
¨Aggression cues- sight of a gun/weapon
¨Guns- may permit but also stimulate violence, US- 10,000 deaths/yr., Australia- a dozen, Britain- two dozen, Canada- 100,
-guns in home- 2.7 times more likely to be murdered by family member or close acquaintance |
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Term
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Definition
¨Media Influences- Pornography and Sexual Violence- one of the biggest businesses in the US (13 billion/ yr.)
¨Distorted Perceptions of Sexual Reality
¨Aggression against women
¨Among 155 men arrested for Internet-based child pornography, 85% admitted they had molested a child at least once, avg. 13 victims
¨Porn causes violence, violent men like porn |
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Term
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Definition
¨“The most damaging kinds of pornography (involve) sexual violence. Like an addiction, you keep craving something that is harder, harder, something which, which gives you a greater sense of excitement. Until you reach a point where the pornography only goes so far, you reach that jumping off point where you begin to wonder if maybe actually doing it would give you that which is beyond reading or looking at it.”
-Ted Bundy (on the eve of execution) |
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Term
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Definition
¨Television and the Internet- average US household has more TVs (2.73) than people (2.6) *more TV than ever before
¨By end of elementary school, avg. child witnesses 8,000 TV murders and 100,000 other violent acts
¨Correlations with 8 yr. olds violence viewing and later adult spouse abuse, adolescents with later likelihood of assault, robbery, threat of injury |
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Term
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Definition
¨How does TV/ internet affect behavior?- produces arousal, viewing violence disinhibits, media portrayals evoke imitation
¨Desensitization – extinguish emotional responses?
¨Altered social scripts (culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations)
¨Altered Perceptions and Cognitive Priming |
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Term
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Definition
¨Video games- 97% of 12-18 yrs. olds play video games
¨Effects- identify with the violent character, actively rehearse violence rather than passively watching it, sequence of enacting violence, repeated violence, rewards for violent acts
¨Increases in aggressive behavior, thoughts, feelings |
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Term
| How can Aggression be Reduced? |
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Definition
¨Catharsis- emotional release. The catharsis view of aggression is that the aggressive drive is reduced when one “releases” aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression
¨We become angry by practicing and reinforcing |
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Term
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Definition
¨Social Learning Approach- reward cooperative, pro-social, nonaggressive behavior
¨Preventative measures in place- problem solving skills, emotion-control strategies, conflict resolution techniques
¨Parent training- frame statements positively |
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