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| Was the most famous poet of the early Abbasid period and was patronized by the caliph at Baghdad. He is famous for being the first to include a special chapter of hunting poems. Also wrote songs, most famously on wine and pederasty. |
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| The wife of the prophet. Many of the reports in Hadith refer to her. Either things that prophet told her or how he acted within marriage. Second wife. daughter married cousin Ali who Shia believe to be the rightful Caliph |
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| The Abbasids was one of the early Islamic dynasties and came to power during the revolt against Umayyad rule. The Abbasids replaced the Arabian aristocracy of the Umayyads with a new governing elite, with only a few in power which seemed similar to the Umayyad style of rule. Also began an eastward orientation, moving the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, which became the cultural center of the Golden Age of Islam. |
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| Was an early Umayyad caliph who began to use Arabic for the first time for administrative documents. Also began to issue a new type of coin which was decorated solely with Arabic writing (epigraphic). He also launched an impressive public works program which included the construction of the Dome of the Rock. |
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| Was an early convert and a companion of the Prophet. He argued that Islam was not merely obeying God, but included a pact in which all Muslims were bound to each other. He was selected as the first caliph (“successor”) to Muhammad. He launched campaigns which brought rebellious Bedouin tribes into the fold and conquered all of Arabia and penetrated into Palestine and lower Iraq. |
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| This is the Islamic call to prayer which is announced five times a day. The person who announces this prayer is called the muezzin. The call sums up the shahada, the statement of faith (one of the five pillars of Islam). This is now usually done from the miniaret which was not an original part of the mosque. |
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| means in Latin in the year of the Hijra. It is the basis for the Islamic calendar which had its first year in 622 with the hijra of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina. This event marked the beginning of the Muslim community. It is a lunar calendar which indicates when Islamic holy events are to be celebrated. |
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| means literally People of the House and would refer to one’s clan in pre-Islamic Arabia (adopted by ruling family of tribe). In Muslim tradition, ahl al-bayt refers to the family of Muhammad. There are differences in view of what the true Ahl al-bayt is: Sunnis include the wives of Muhammad, while Shiites do not. |
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| This was the cousin of the Prophet and one of the first converts to Islam. Most important because his followers became organized into the largest, non-orthodox sect of Islam: Shia. He was the fourth caliph and Shiites believe that the leader of the community should be from the family of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the first imam in their view. His ascension to power marked by a civil war because believed he was implicated in assassination of predecessor, Uthman. |
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| This was the title given first to Umar. Title literally means commander of the believers. This does not establish the holder of the title as the religious leader, but rather as the military leader. Also, refers not only to being a leader of Muslims, but leader of all believers including Jews and Christians (people of the book). |
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| term that means helpers in Arabic. Refers to the citizens of Medina who supported Muhammad and his followers when he fled Mecca to Medina. These were converts in Medina who were predominantly Jews and Christians, but some polytheists as well. With the arrival of Muhammad and his followers and the converts in Medina already, Muhammad established the umma. They were opposed to the conversion of the elites to Islam, who only did so in the wake of Muslim successes (felt cheated). |
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| Is the term that refers to the verses in the Koran of which there are 6000. Means in Arabic sign or proof. Within the Koran, the ayat become shorter as the Koran progresses, the longer, later revelations being at the beginning (the establishment of rules/regulations of a community) and the shorter, earlier revelations being at the end (early inspirational verses). |
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| is a term that means in the name of God in Arabic and recited to indicate doing God’s work. This is one of several terms from the Koran that have been adopted as common expressions. This phrase is repeated before the beginning of each sura in the Koran and is included in the daily prayers of Muslims. |
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| Was one of two great empires in the Middle East before the rise of the Islamic empire. One of the reasons the Muslim conquerors were so successful originally was because of the weakness of the Byzantine Empire because it had been fighting with the Sasanian Empire for such a long period. The capital, Constantinople, was the center of power before the Islamic conquests and Muslim rulers sought to emulate the Byzantines. Their oppressive rule in Syria and Egypt combined with natural disasters paved the way for Muslim conquest. |
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| Refers to common era, which is a designation of the calendar era. It is an alternative to the AD designation which means in the year of our lord, but the calendar years correspond. This is a secular designation, which is in contrast to the religious designation of the Muslim calendar with the term A.H., which means in the year of the hijra. |
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| This is the person who is designated as a ruler of the Islamic state, the caliphate, and is the leader of the religious community, the umma. Term literally means successor or representative in Arabic. The title was first used by the first four successors of Muhammad (Abu Bakr, Uthman, Umar, Ali), but was adopted by the leaders of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties and by leaders of other Islamic dynasties. |
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| This was the capital of the Sasanian Empire. The capital was an architectural wonder with significant palaces. When the Muslims arrived under Umar, they destroyed all the palaces and burnt all the documents. City went into rapid decline after the rise of the Muslims. The city is claimed to be the source of inspiration for the Thousand and One Nights. |
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| This was an administrative office established under the original caliphs to collect taxes and distribute booty. This office favored those who converted first who received more of the share. This became the basis for the central taxation system and was an essential institution of the developing state. |
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| Was a religious structure (not a mosque) built in Jerusalem by the Umayyad ruler Abd al-Malik in the year 692. Reminiscent of Byzantine architecture which the Muslims were emulating (mosaics and gold dome). This synthesizing was creating a new architectural form. Structure was supposed to mark the site of the miraj (the ascension of Muhammad to heaven). Also, the structure served to indicate the arrival of Islam and the fact that it was going to remain in the city as a force. |
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| Was a philosopher and musician and is noted for his independence from caliphal patronage. Became known as an Arabic commentator on Aristotle and was referred to as the Second Teacher (1st being Aristotle). Also he is famous for being the foremost scholar of music in the history of Islam. He was criticized by al-Ghazali for his teachings regarding Aristotle. |
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| The first chapter in the Koran and means “the opener.” Has seven verses which are prayers for guidance of God and also stress God’s mercy. Is used as the start of each unit of prayer which means it is recited 17 times a day by those who pray 5 times. |
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| This is a term that refers to secession, upheaval and chaos. But also refers to the civil war that followed Ali’s succession of Uthman. This war was between those who were partisans/supporters of Ali (later to become Shiites) and those who would later establish the Umayyad dynasty (would become Sunnis). The civil war resulted in the victory of the founder of the Umayyad dynasty and would establish Shia religion as non-orthodox. |
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| The five pillars include the testimony of faith (shahada), praying five times a day and communal prayer on Fridays, fasting during Ramadan, almsgiving, and making the pilgrimage to Mecca (haj). It is claimed that the five pillars are established in the famous hadith of Gabriel because not enumerated in the Koran. These are established as ways to be a good practitioner of the faith. |
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| the reporting of specific actions and deeds of the prophet became a literature by the name of hadith, which means report. Each hadith is prefaced by an isnad (support) which follows the chain of transmission and thus verifies the authority of the report. The second part of the report is the body which is called matn and conveys the lesson/word or action of profit. |
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| this is the prophet’s expression of divine inspiration, not the literal word of God, but inspired by God and quoting him. Contains an isnad which is the chain of transmission which establishes the authority of the report. Also contains a matn which is the word of the prophet and the lesson conveyed. |
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| Geniza was the store room for documents and one such store room was uncovered in the early 1920s in Cairo. The documents uncovered were business documents of Jewish traders in the medieval Muslim world. The documents were written by Jewish traders who wrote them in the Judeo-Arabic script. These documents have been used to understand the complex trading system that extended throughout the Muslim world and also can be used to understand the polyglot nature of the Muslim world. |
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| was a Church built in Constantinople by the emperor Justinian. This structure served as a representation of the status of the empire. Muslims looked to Constantinople and the Hagia Sophia as something to supersede, architecturally, culturally, and politically. When the Ottomans took control of Constantinople, they converted the Hagia Sophia into a mosque. Some of the styles and characteristics of the Hagia Sophia were adopted in Muslim architecture. |
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| This is one of the five pillars of Islam, which requires all Muslims to make a pilgrimage to Mecca once in their lifetime. This journey involves the Kaaba, which is the holiest site in the Islamic religion and in whose direction all prayers are directed. The hajj was developed in model of and to commemorate the “farewell” pilgrimage the Prophet undertook just before he died. |
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| this term refers to a sacred enclosure. These areas were inviolable and no weapons were allowed in such areas. These sites became market towns because allowed for a peaceful exchange and trade, which was essential to the tribal society of Arabia. The Quraysh were in charge of the haram at Mecca. These sites also featured water sources, which made them very important as rest stops/trading centers. |
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| was an Abbasid caliph who was known for expelling the Barmakids who were ambitious Afghans who had come to dominate the ministries of the Abbasid caliphate. Made a treaty with Charlemagne which gave al-Rashid rights of protection over Jerusalem. Also he was notable for establishing Baghdad as the cultural center of the Islamic world, building the House of Wisdom. He was also the patron of Abu Nuwas. |
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| this is the term that refers to the flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in fear of the prosecution by the traditional Quraysh elite. Literally means emigration and it was after this move that Muhammad declared/established the umma, or community. This event in 622 marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar. |
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| Was the son of Ali ibn ali Talib and is considered to be a member of the ahl al-bayt (house of the prophet). He was made imam after his brother, who did not want the position. He attempted to unite the divided community by claiming to be the true successor and was martyred at the battle of Karbala. This martyrdom is one of the most important aspects of the Shiite religion and is commemorated every year with mourning. |
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| : this is the term that is used by Shiites to refer to the successor of Muhammad. They believed that the imam should be descended directly from Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali. They also believed this successor would be a divinely guided and infallible religious teacher. |
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| This is a religion that originated in Arabia and whose seal of the prophets is Muhammad, who reported the word of God. This term means submission and refers to submission to God. This is a strongly monotheistic religion, which has even attacked the Christian trinity as being a form of pagan polytheism. |
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| This is one of the two parts of the hadith, the other being the matn. Isnad literally means support. It refers to the chain of transmission which is described to verify the authority of the report. This is very important because this information was handed down orally originally and so reports had to have solid authority in order to be considered legitimate. |
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| the Arabic term for the angel Gabriel. Gabriel is believed by Muslims to be the angel who revealed the Koran to the prophet Muhammad. Gabriel is featured in the hadith of Gabriel and whose words enumerated the five pillars of Islam. |
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| this literally means “struggle on behalf of God.” Concept that refers to the spreading of the faith. This concept motivated the early Islamic conquerors despite the fact that they were not encouraging conversion of those who they conquered. Two types of jihad, lesser and greater, and lesser refers to the internal struggle/struggle within the community to be better Muslims, while lesser refers to active conquering/conversion. |
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| Is one part of a system of dividing the Koran into 30 parts. This division facilitates the recitation of the Koran in a month. This is especially helpful during the month of Ramadan in which one juz is recited each night. |
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| this is the holiest site in all of Islam and is the site to which all Muslim direct their prayers. It is a mosque and the only decoration on this mosque is writing which is a very important form of decoration in Islamic culture. This is the only mosque without a mihrab because it is the site to which Muslims pray. Was a pagan religious site, which allowed the Qurayysh who were in charge of the haram to become religious leaders, but Muhammad destroyed the idols when he returned to Mecca. |
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| Was the site of an important battle between Umayyad forces and the grandson of Muhammad, Husayn bin Ali. This was the battle in which Husayn was martyred trying to overthrow what would become the Sunni dynasty. This battle is a very important part of Shiite religious tradition and is commemorated for a ten day period every year. |
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| This was the first wife of Muhammad. She originally employed him, but she came to trust him so much that she married him. She was the first convert to Islam. She was the first to encourage Muhammad to accept his revelations as such and not as his going insane. |
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| This is a political sect in the early Islamic world and their name literally translates to “seceders.” Believed that the head of the community must renounce the position if sin at all or commit injustice, which led to their opposition to the Umayyad caliphs. They believed in the equality of all believers and so attracted many non-Arab converts. Left the battle of Siffin because believed that God would determine who should succeed. |
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| was a famous mathematician and geographer who took his talents to Baghdad’s House of Wisdom. He wrote a book which would be responsible for the spread of the Hindu numerals in the Islamic world. Also wrote a book in which he sought ways of resolving quadratic equations. All of these works and intellectual developments were brought to the European world as well through translations. |
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| The term literally means recitation and refers to the holy text of Islam. The text is considered to be the literal word of God as revealed to Muhammad in Arabic. The Koran was passed down orally and was only systematized under the rule of the third caliph, Uthman. |
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| the oldest calligraphic form of the various Arabic scripts. Emerged from the city of Kufa which was a former garrison city which became a center of learning. This script was angular and in order to accommodate the new script, the Koran was landscaped. |
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| this was an enclosure near the qibla or mihrab. This was first used in mosque construction under the original Umayyad ruler. This was intended to shield the ruler from assassination attempts while praying. This need came about because of the violence of the early period arising out of the various conflicts within the community. |
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| Literally means in Arabic “a place of prostration” in reference to the act of prostrating one’s self during prayers. There are two types of masjid, one is smaller and is used solely for the five prayers a day, while the larger masjid is used for the five prayers a day, but also for Friday congregational prayer. Two aspects of most masjid: have mihrab (direction of prayer) and minbar (pulpit). |
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| Mecca is the holiest city in Islam and Muslims pray in the direction of Mecca. It is where Muhammad began having his revelations and where the holiest site in Islam, the Kaaba, is located. This is also the city to which all able bodied Muslims are supposed to make a pilgrimage to once in their life (hajj). |
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| Was an oases town and because of this became a major trading center in pre-Islamic Arabia. It was the destination of Muhammad’s hijra, in which Muhammad fled from prosecution in Mecca to Medina and the residents there invited Muhammad to settle tribal disputes. It was in Medina where Muhammad established the “Constitution of Medina” which articulated the responsibilities of the community. |
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| This is the story which describes Muhammad’s ascension to heaven. Muhammad spoke to God and God told Muhammad to tell the faithful to pray five times a day. This story is revealed in the Koran and is elaborated in various hadith. The site of this ascension is claimed to be the location of the Dome of the Rock. |
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| Middle East/Southwest Asia/SWANA |
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| This refers to the traditional homeland of Islam. Islam emerged out of the Arabian peninsula in the Middle East and initially spread to Southwest Asia, primarily the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Iran. This influence, however, extended into North Africa as well with further Muslim conquests. |
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| in the Koran, mihrab refers to a sanctuary/place of worship. However, the mihrab is more specifically the semi-circular niche in the wall of the mosque which indicates the qibla (the direction of prayer). This was not an original characteristic of the mosque and was only adopted during the reign of Abd al-Malik, the first mihrab being at the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina. |
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| is a characteristic architectural feature of mosques. It was not an original part of the mosque and only became so 80 years after Muhammad’s death. The minaret is the structure from which the call to prayer is made five times a day. Each region in which Islam has been adopted has individual styles of the minaret. |
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| this is the pulpit in a mosque. It denotes a congregational mosque because it was needed in order for the imam to talk. It was where announced the tax rate and the caliph, which became a major source of authority: to have the name announced from the minbar legitimized authority. |
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| these terms refer to the garrison towns that were established during the early Arabic conquests. The most significant misr were located at Basra, Kufa, and Fustat. These towns were established by entire tribes that were settling down as a result of the new settled lifestyle they had adopted after converting to Islam. Many of these misr would develop into full fledged cities and important Islamic cultural centers. |
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| : was the first Umayyad caliph. He was the former governor of Syria and in the wake of Uthman’s uninvestigated murder, he challenged Ali’s authority and fought Ali at the Battle of Siffin. He was also the leader who established Damascus as his capital. |
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| these were some of the early converts to Islam from Mecca who made the hijra with Muhammad in fear of prosecution. This group was not made up of the elite of society. This group became discontented with the system of diwan which was originally built to give favor to the early converts, but which favored the elites who converted later. |
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| Was born into the Qurraysh tribe, orphaned, and became involved in commercial activities through family ties. While in seclusion at the age of 40, began hearing voice which told him to recite (voice of the angel Gabriel). He begins having revelations which are considered the direct word of God. He was considered very trustworthy and was able to use this attribute to build tribal unity and establish Islam as the overriding faith in Arabia. |
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| in Arabic, literally means “direction.” In Islamic culture it refers to the direction one prays to, which is the direction of Mecca. In every mosque, there is a niche called a mihrab, which indicates the qibla. Initially, to win over Jewish and Christian converts, the qibla was directed towards Jerusalem, but this was later changed. |
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| This was a tribe in Arabia that was prestigious for being the religious leaders of Mecca (an important pagan pilgrimage site) and for being commercial leaders. The Prophet Muhammad was born into the Quraysh tribe in 570. The Quraysh elite were at first hostile to Islam because if the holiness of the city of Mecca was undermined, they would lose trade. This led to their prosecution of Muhammad who was forced to flee the city. |
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| This is a holy month in the Islamic calendar which was believed to be the month in which the first revelations to Muhammad occurred. Daylight fasting during this month is considered to be one of the five pillars of Islam. On each night of Ramadan, a juz is supposed to be recited and this month is supposed to build a sense of community among the umma |
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| This is a term used by Sunni Muslims to refer to the first four caliphs. Term means “rightly guided.” These caliphs were elected because of their close association with the Prophet and for the respect within the community. It was in this early period of rule that Islam saw its most rapid expansion, establishing itself throughout the Middle East. |
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| is the practice of formal prayer in Islam. It is recognized as one of the five pillars of Islam. This process involves first ritual purification and then the performance of prayer which is directed towards Mecca (qibla). |
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| this was the city built in modern day northern Iraq and which was made the capital of the Abbasid caliphate. The Abbasids were forced to move their capital from Baghdad because of disputes that emerged between the Turkish slave soldiers, Mamluks, and the citizens of the city. It is home to the Great Mosque of Samarra which is famous for its spiraling minaret and floral and geometric designs which are indicative of early Islamic decoration. |
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| This was one of the two major empires in the middle east before the rise of Islam. The Empire was constantly in a state of war with the Byzantines and the ensuing weakness of both empires as a result of these conflicts, created a vacuum which allowed for the spread of Islam. Zoroastrianism was the religion of the state and gave Islam the concept of afterlife and also lent Islam the practice of praying five times a day (one of the protected faiths). |
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| This is the Islamic creed and the profession of faith. The testifying of this creed is considered to be one of the five pillars of Islam and is all that is needed in order to convert to the faith. This profession is important in that it declares the strict monotheism of the Muslim and also declares Muhammad as his prophet. |
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| This is the “Book of Kings,” a poem which has been considered the national epic of Iran since it was written by Firdawsi in 1010. This work exemplified the spirit of Persian independence that was prevalent at the time. The book traced the beginning of Zoroastrianism through to the beginning of Muslim rule, and was important in the rebirth of Persian literature in the Islamic world. |
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| is a term that refers to a denomination of Islam which was founded by those who were supporters of Ali, the fourth caliph. This religious group was the largest non-orthodox Islamic group and believed that the successors to Muhammad should be from Ali’s family. Ali’s authority was challenged at the battle of Siffin and in the wake of this battle, the Umayyads took power and became the established political rulers. Three different individual denominations, Twelvers, Seveners, and Fivers based on who is last legitimate imam. |
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| literally means path and refers to certain customs and actions which should be taken. In the aftermath of the death of Muhammad, the community looked to customs used at the time to try to establish norms of behavior for being a Muslim. Initially, sunna meant the customs of certain areas, but it developed into meaning the customs of the Prophet himself. The literature which deals with sunna is called hadith, which means report. |
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| the orthodox branch of Islam which did not take a specific stance on who the ruler of the community should be, but rather accepted the political transitions. The Sunnis are the largest group of Muslims and rulers of the Abbasid and Umayyad dynasties were Sunnis. This orthodox branch faced opposition from the Shiites, who believed the successor should come from the family of Muhammad, and the Kharijites, who believed that any sinner should renounce their faith and their position as leader of the community. |
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| is a division of the Koran, often referred to as a chapter. There are 114 suras in the Koran and they are each named, these names having their source in hadith (not named originally). The suras are categorized as Meccan and Medinan, the Meccan sura being based around faith, while the Medinan being based around the organization of the community. |
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| textiles. the word for textiles. important because textiles were important. Abassid rulers used to put their names on it to show off power. textiles extremely important in this region |
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| This is a region in Central Asia that was important to the Islamic empires because of its fertility and because of this, crops from this region were able to support increasing urban populations. The Islamic government that was established there adopted many technologies that were able to increase the production of the area through increased control of the water sources. In addition, it is where the Islamic world first encountered paper from China, which would become the major medium for writing and would lead to a surge in written culture in the Islamic world. |
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| This was the learned men of Islam, the term coming from the word ulama which itself literally means “learned man.” Sunnis believed that although the caliphs were political leaders, they were not spiritual heirs to Muhammad and thus Sunnis believed that the leaders should submit to and enforce the legal and theological doctrines established by the ulema. Their status was neither validated by the state or any formal religious institution, but was established by the reputation the person held among the other ulema. |
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| was the second of the first four, rightly guided caliphs. He was caliph during the greatest expansion of the Islamic state, conquering the Middle East from Eastern Anatolia to Iran and extending the state into North Africa as well. He struck the pact of Umar in Jerusalem, which granted Jews and Christians dhimmi status and gave them protection in exchange for extra taxes. |
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| This was the first Islamic dynasty which emerged out of the defeat of Ali and the ending of the rashidun era. The Umayyads moved the capital of the Islamic state to Damascus where they had a stronger base of support. After defeating challenges to their authority at the battle of Karbala, the rulers embarked on building a civilization which included the building of the Dome of the Rock. |
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| Umayyad Mosque in Damascus |
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| Damascus had been under the influence of the Greeks, the Romans and the Byzantines at various times and so had inherited certain architectural traditions. The mosque originally was a pagan temple, but when the Christians came in converted the temple and kept the enclosure walls. The mosaics which were characteristic of early mosques were featured in the Umayyad Mosque, depicting traditional floral scenes. This mosque has served as a model for all mosques to come, all of them including both the mihrab and the minbar. |
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| refers to the community of believers. Muhammad established this community which was an important step at the time because established equality before God and ignored tribal affiliations, which was a major obstacle to Islamic unity in the early period. In the Constitution of Medina, Muhammad initially included the Christian, Jewish and even pagan citizens in the umma. |
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Definition
| was the third caliph of the rashidun era. He was responsible for the systematizing of the Koran, he destroyed the divergent texts and sent out the official copies to the major Islamic centers. He was assassinated and when Ali refused to investigate his death, Muawiya (cousin of Uthman) implicated Ali in his death and launched a challenge to Ali’s authority fighting the battle of Siffin. Came from the wealthy Quraysh tribe and appointed family members to many positions of importance which angered the Muslim community. |
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| was an oases town that would turn into the city of Medina. During a tribal dispute, Muhammad was invited to Yathrib in order to be the moderator as he was known for his fairness and trustworthiness. It was in Yathrib that he was protected from the persecution of the Quraysh elites in Mecca and where he was able to establish the umma. |
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| is one of the pillars of Islam and refers to almsgiving. This practice was established by Muhammad and could be a result of the fact that he was orphaned as a child and thus understood the plight of the disadvantaged. This concept which involved the setting up of a tax system was an important part of the concept of the state/government being linked to religion. |
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| this was a water source. These were traditionally where harams were established because allowed for people to visit the sacred sites. One of those cities established around a zamzam was Mecca, which was a religious center and because of the peaceful trade that was thus conducted there, became a center of commercial activity as well. |
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