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Shah of the Safavid Dynasty
Moved the capital from Qazvin to Isfahan
Rebuilt Isfahan and made it a grand city with a grand bazaar, and the palace of ali qapu
Important because he made Isfahan into a great Islamic city and unified Persia under the Safavids. |
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The third of the Islamic dynasties ruled by the Abbasid caliphs.
Overthrew the Ummayad caliphs
Made Baghdad the capital city from Damascus
Important to Islamic history because during this period the Muslim world became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad; where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge into Arabic. |
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The third Mughal ruler.
Patron of the arts encouraged development of the Mughal School
He firmly entrenched the authority of the Mughal empire in India and beyond, after it had been threatened by the Afghans during his father's reign, establishing its military and diplomatic superiority. |
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The cousin to Muhammad and the first male convert to Muslim.
Was a caliph.
Sunnis consider him the 4th and final Rashidun (rightly guided caliphate) and Shias consider him the first Imam and consider him and his descendants the rightful successors to Muhammad, all of which are members of the Ahl al-Bayt, the household of Muhammad.
Important because he is at the heart of the Sunni/Shia split. |
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Aniconism is the practice or belief in avoiding or shunning images of divine beings, prophets or other respected religious figures.
Not specifically said in Koran.
Responsible for a lot of Muslim art that is ornate and pattern based.
Important because some Muslims practice this and don't create images of Muhammad the prophet. |
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The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines.
Mainly because many Muslims practice aniconism which shuns images.
Important because this art form adorns many Islamic pieces of art and architecture. |
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A city in Northwest Iran.
Was the largest city in Iran during the Islamic Conquest.
Got sacked by the Mughals and the citizens were massacred.
Important because it was a major city and was a battling point between the Safavids and Mughals |
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Was an Iranian religious leader and politician, and leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution which saw the overthrow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran.
Following the revolution, Khomeini became the country's Supreme Leader — a position created in the constitution as the highest ranking political and religious authority of the nation — until his death.
Important because it led to a trend of Islamic religious governments that do not have friendly relations with the US. |
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Muslim conqueror from central Asia that became the first Mughal emperor.
United the Indian continent under Islam and was a patron of architecture.
Important because it is one of the 3 gunpowder empires and he started it. His legacy lies in all of the Mughal empire. |
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Means sea.
A Muslim dynasty that ruled Egypt.
Came to power after the Abassids. Were aided by Mughal sack of Baghdad.
Important because they ruled the historical city of Cairo. And were the dominating Muslim presence in the area after the Abbasids |
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The beneficent force from God that flows through the physical and spiritual spheres as prosperity, protection, and happiness.
Baraka can be found within physical objects, places, and people, as chosen by God. This force begins by flowing directly from God into creation that is worthy of baraka.
It is a component of Islamic mysticism called Sufiism.
Very important as the Sufis are a key part of Islamic history as they represent the mystical part of this religion. |
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A Muslim mall.
A sometimes covered area of a city where there are many shop owners.
Most great Islamic cities have a grand bazaar that is a center for activity and commerce in the city.
Important because these exist in most Islamic cities and are central to Islamic culture. These bazaars are keys to daily life for Islamic people and art thus important. |
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The dynasty that came after the Bahri Mamluks.
Ruled Cairo and Egypt for several hundred years.
Initially had friendly relations with Ottoman Empire but were later sacked by the Ottomans who held Cairo for hundreds of years.
Important because Cairo is a important city in Islamic history and they were the last to control Cairo before the Ottomans. |
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This is the person who is designated as a ruler of the Islamic state, the caliphate, and is the leader of the religious community, the umma.
Term literally means successor or representative in Arabic. The title was first used by the first four successors of Muhammad (Abu Bakr, Uthman, Umar, Ali), but was adopted by the leaders of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties and by leaders of other Islamic dynasties.
Important because caliph's are the spiritual leaders of the Islamic community so they are very important. |
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Motel on a trading route.
This was a small town or outpost where traders could park their caravans and spend the night which would provide them shelter from the elements and dangers.
Important because these caravanserais were essential to trade in the Islamic world. |
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Term
| Conquest of Constantinople |
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Definition
-end of huge Christian rival and gain of a very strategic city; Muslims now move into Europe
-1453 Memhmet II “The conqueror” finally captures it, Ottoman Turks/Muslims will hold it until present day
-combination of muslim, greek, and byzantine cultural influences |
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Definition
-1453 made capital of Muslim Ottoman empire→Hagia Sophia, the tantamount of architecture for centuries, is converted into a mosque
-Ottomans were strict Sunnis→wakf and madrasas to combat Sufism and Shi’ism of neighbors, and heterodoxy of ghazi religions
-“jewel of the world” |
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Definition
system used by Ottomans where tax levied upon Christian communities to provide young boys
-young boys →janissaries, slave Muslim soldier corps loyal to Sultan
-boys → part of Ottoman bureaucracy |
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=divine religion
-created by Akbar, Mughal, with himself as center, as a way to combine and unify the Hindu and Muslim populations in Indian empire and give him legitimacy over both
-would hold weekly religious discussions with the elite, an elite religion exclusively |
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=great
-Mughal capital founded by Akbar after Akbarabad in place of Sufi saint--legit’cy
-planned perfectly, evidenced by architecture and layout
Abandoned because there was no water |
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-wrote the shanamah , the “Book of Kings,” a paramount of Persian literature and book illustration (c. 1550)
-Safavids used this epic as legit’cy to rule bc showed there was a history of monarchical rule in Iran
-helped invigorate Persian culture/history in Iran |
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-a world conqueror from Mongolia, beginning of tradition of world conqueors, changing legitimacy claims
-his invasions in 1200’s caused huge migration of Muslims westward, fleeing invaders
-destroyed many dynasties and regimes (eg Abbasids) when he created his empire stretching from China to Iraq
-created an era known as the pax Mongolia, a time of peace w/ flourishing of trade because the lands between China and the Middle East were unified unlike ever before. |
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Definition
=
-defenders/fighters of the faith
-being extremely charismatic leaders is what led them to power and keeps them in power-but an empire needs stability and ideology to keep it together, not just a strongman
-The Ottoman rulers are divided by this concept--on the one hand, history/ancestry of fronteirsmen, fighters, war-like spirit; on the other hand, need to focus on empire-building, administration, and diplomacy
-another problem--what to do with the ghazis who helped you get in power? Might rival you/overthrow you |
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Term
| ghulams (in the Safavid context) |
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Definition
-Turkic slave soldiers in Safavid empire, formed to combat power of qizilbash
-loyal only to shah and helped build centralized state
-used muskets--gunpowder empires
-never as effective as janissary corps b/c of rugged Iranian terrain |
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Definition
-1500-1900
-Ottomans in Anatolia, Istanbul; Safavids in Iran, Isfahan; Mughals in India, Delhi
-each was a political polity w/ political ruler, not a Muslim one w/religious ruler; some were even religiously tolerant and did not force conversions; bc did not claim to be only rightful ruler, had peaceful coexistence
-Turkish gradually replaces Persian
-major powers that contend with European powers
-highly centralized power |
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Term
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Definition
= report
-reporting from eyewitnesses of specific actions and deeds of the prophet
-This answers questions about how to be a Muslim, e.g. dress codes, by reporting how Muhammad did things, his example
-2nd most important religious text for Muslims next to the Qur’an
-isnad = support matn = body |
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Term
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= pilgrimage
- one of the five pillars of Islam, which requires all able-bodied Muslims to make a pilgrimage to Mecca to see the Kaaba, the holiest site in Islam and where all prayers are directed, once in their lifetime
-Pilgrimage historically was an important part of Islamic culture and pre-Islam polytheistic religions
-It is said in the hadith that a woman’s jihad is the hajj |
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Definition
grandson of Ghengis Khan who founded the Ilkhanate (“subordinate”) of Persia, who extended Mongol power even farther into Middle East, reaching and sacking Baghdad
-advent of Persian with his patronizing illuminations, poetry, astronomy |
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Term
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Definition
= flight, emigration
-Muhammad escaped Quraysh persecution by escaping to Medina
-in Medina, established first umma, or community.
- happened in 622, marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar--1 AH is the first year of the hijra |
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- is the term that is used by Shiites to refer to the successor of Muhammad and the rightful ruler of the Muslim community
- They believed that the imam should be descended directly from Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali (first imam).
-They also believed this successor would be a divinely guided and infallible religious teacher.
-messianic connotations: searching for a savior |
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Definition
-capital of the Safavid empire
-huge economic and cultural center once Shah Abbas The Great made big improvements, built a lot (e.g. Royal Maidan), patronized arts
-foreigners were entertained in lavish paalace parties, attracted to beautiful miniatures, rugs, and enamelware in markets |
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-part of Persian-style mosque building, replaces arab plan w/ hippostyle
-barrel-vaulted space that’s enclosed at one end
-happened during Dynastic period, shows introduction of Persian ideas |
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- an extremely famous mystic poet in Persian
- a whirling dervish, who believed in whriling/dancing to imitate religious ecstasy Muhammad underwent when he heard the first recitation
-desired to get closer to God--his poetry describes Allah as almost a lover
-provides counter to contemporary madrasa’s legalistic routes to God |
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-black hats
-loyal slave army obtained through devshirme system, a levy of Chritsian boys from empire
-loyal to Sultan; their decline in 17th c led to a decline in Sultan’s power |
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Definition
- the holiest site in all of Islam and the site to which all Muslim direct their prayers.
-It is the “center of the universe,” and all good muslims come here as part of the haj, or pilgrimage, one of the 5 pillars of Islam
- covered in a black cloth; only decoration on it is gold Arabic script from the Qur’an.
In pre- and early Islam, being a haram allowed trade and ideas to flourish |
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Term
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Definition
= lodge
-something to do with Sufis-- a really wonderful luxurious lodge thats supposed to stimultate all the senses and raise you to an ecstatic level
- example of wakf |
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Term
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Definition
= seceders
- they left the fighting during the first civil war, or fitna, and formed this polit. sect
- anyone who is pious enough can rule—building a strong Islamic community is more valuable than honoring familial lines.
- leader must renounce his position if he sins at all→opposition to Umayyad caliphs |
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Definition
= recitation
- the holy text of Islam; additions of titles and page breaks indicative of its heavy use as reference, interpreted to create Muslim law
- text is considered to be the literal word of God as revealed to Muhammad in Arabic. The Koran was passed down orally until it was systemized systematized under the rule of the third Umayyad caliph, Uthman; now all Muslims must be literate so they can read it |
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Definition
-“college”
-an example of wakf, or charitable endowments, built by foreign rulers (notably the seljuks) when they wanted to legitimize their rule in newly-conq’d cities
- founding of the intellectual culture of islam and basis for our “college” now--poetry, logic, history taught
-legal theory, interpretation of qur’an, taught in madrasa, ech school of Islamic law had its own (Baghdad madrasa combined them all) |
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Definition
= plaza
-huge courtyard or square built for pedestrians, similar to today’s mall
-example: Royal Maidan in Isfahan--boosts foreign and domestic commerce, boosts popularity of monarch b/c holds games, is pretty |
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Definition
-former Turkic slaves who rose to power in the vaccum left by collapse of Ayyubid empire, Egypt and Syria
-claimed legitimacy through being “defenders of the faith”--military meritocracy
-used wakf or charitable endowments as a way to get popularity and support of pop’n who chafed under foreign rule
-are responsible for finally getting rid of Christian Franks |
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Term
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Definition
-a tax farming system which decentralized taxing and allowed for Hindu princes to retain some power and thus were not hostile to the Muslim rulers
-Mughals were in the minority
-similar to Ottoman millet system, and helps gunpowder empires maintain control over multi-ethnic and multi-religious empires |
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Term
| Mehmed II/Fatih/The Conqueror |
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Definition
Ottoman building plan for mosques--central dome, pencil point minarets--re-doing Hasgia Sophia
-conquered Istanbul |
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Term
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Definition
= nation, group
-minorities in Ottoman empire are allowed to form ethnic groups and elect a representative who will deal with Ottoman gov’t--self-rule essntially
-have own educ’n system, churches--this flexibility is what allows Ottoman empire to be so long-lasting |
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Term
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Definition
= miraculous journey, night journey
- the story which describes Muhammad’s ascension to heaven and his visit to hell Muhammad spoke to God and God told Muhammad to tell the faithful to pray five times a day; depicted riding a Buraq, strange steed
- some claim the site of this ascension is the location of the Dome of the Rock.
-considered by some Sufis to be a mystical moment when he ascends to heaven; has inspired ons of extra-qu’ranic literature and illustrations |
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Definition
= people; place
- garrison towns that were established when Rashiduns and early muslim conquerers (632-950) came into an area
- most significant misr were located at Basra, Kufa, and Fustat. These towns were established by entire tribes that were settling down but preferred to live separately from native pop’n→ developped into huge urban centers |
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Definition
-invasion in 1200’s due to pop’n pressure in China and East Asia
-sparks massive westward migration of peoples (muslim ppls)
-Islamic history now evolves into Persian, which becomes court language, poetry language **
-end of caliphates, or religious rulers--Islamic polities now become political, w/ foreign rulers
-Persian building styles, wakf bc need to legitimize power in a new way now |
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Definition
-an ethnic group from Mongolia that under the leadership of Ghengis Khan invaded the Middle East and India in the 1200s
-opened up trade from China to India to the Middle East--Pax Mongolia
-eventually most of them converted to Islam and brought much to Islamic culture, especially the Persian culture and influx of images |
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Definition
-one of the gunpowder empires centralled in southern India
-Muslim rulers were in the minority in their empire of primarily Hindus, so had to find other ways to legitimize power--grand tombs, commemorative monuments, mansabdar system, and Divine Religion
-claimed legitimacy from world conquerors like Timur, Barbur, and Ghengis Khan--can’t claim through prophet |
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Definition
-the “last prophet” in line of Abraham, Moses, and Jesus; born into the Qurraysh tribe, orphaned
-While in seclusion at the age of 40, began hearing voice which told him to recite (voice of the angel Gabriel). He begins having revelations which are considered the direct word of God and span a 22 year period
- founder of Islam (“submission) monotheistic, Allah is the creator, judger, giver of literacy
-died without a successor, which led to centuries of civil war and sectional division |
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Term
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Definition
According to the popular Muslim tradition, refers to a person who appears at the turn of every century of the Islamic calendar to revive Islam, remove from it any extraneous elements and restore it to its pristine purity.
A mujaddid might be a caliph, a saint (wali), a prominent teacher, a scholar or some other kind of influential person..
"Allah shall raise for this Ummah at the head of every century a man who shall renew (or revive) for it its religion." |
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Definition
Persian Shia Islamic philosopher, theologian and ‘Ālim who led the Iranian cultural renaissance in the 17th century.
- he is considered the master of the Illuminationist, or (Ishraghi or Ishraqi) school of Philosophy
-Taught in a madrasa in Isfahan |
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Term
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Definition
-a quarter in Isfahan established by Shah Abbas I for Armenians exclusively
-allowed them to have their own religion, very unique because most Safavids were forces to convert to 12er shi’ism
-b/c they were exellecnt traders and had exclusive connections with the silk route, one of the bases for Safavid success |
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Definition
-one of the gunpowder empires, and the most long lasting (survive until 20th century) b/c extremely adaptable, 1200s-1900s
-let people govern themselves w/in empire through millet system
-very diverse ethnically, religiously, linguistically
-ruled by Sultan, strong central relig’s and political authority, with loyal janissary army
-first Islamic polity to foray into sea exploration and trade, to keep up w/ times |
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Term
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Definition
= direction
- refers to the direction one prays to, Mecca -In every mosque,
-there is a niche called a mihrab, which indicates the qibla |
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Definition
-a Turkic warrior class that was instrumental in bringing Shah Ismail I to power and beginning the Safavid dynasty
-after his grasp, he summarily weakened them and replaced them with the ghulams so they would not become a threat
-were militant religious puritan muslims, gave Safavids religious and political authority |
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Definition
-Muhammad’s tribe, they were keepers of the religious haram Mecca (an important pagan pilgrimage site)
- united Arabia into a commonwealth of trade, influencing spread of ideas
-Quraysh persecuted early Muslims b/c if Mecca was undermined, they would lose trade→prosecution of Muhammad who was forced to Medina |
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Definition
-one of gunpowder empires centered in Iran, whose capital in Isfahan under Shah Abbas was the golden Age of the empire where art, trade, and culture flourished
-rose to power through charismatic, sufi leaders→to combat this possibility for instability, converted to the hierarchical 12er shi’ism
-textile trade importance→building of caravanserai and other wakf built by Shahs
-had good relationship w/ Mughals, enemies w/ Ottoman Sunis |
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Term
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Definition
-destruction of Baghdad was carried out by the Ilkhanate under the leadership of Hulegu Khan.
-This had been the Abbasid capital, but was destroyed, along with the rest of the empire during the Mongol incursions.
-The House of Wisdom was destroyed and so were the multitude works contained within the city (rivers black with ink)→ eventually, successors to Hulegu would convert to Islam and would actually engage in the sponsorship and support of Islamic cultural activities. |
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Term
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Definition
| Salafis view the first three generations of Muslims—the Sahabah, or Companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and the two succeeding generations after them, the Tabi‘un and the Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in—as an eternal model for all succeeding Muslim generations, especially in their beliefs and methodology of understanding the texts, but also in their method of worship, mannerisms, morality, piety and conduct. |
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Term
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Definition
won back Jerusalem from Christian Frank crusaders by invoking jihad
-listened to intellectual basis for war (jihad) and said needed to respond to the killing of Muslims when Christians took Jerusalem (religious duty).
-Founded Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt that extended across North Africa, into Mid-East, and Hejaz. |
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Definition
-1037-1053 established in conquered Iran
-established first sultanate, a military not religious power
-westward migration--foreign rulers; introduction of Persian to Islam
-Suni--their rein marks first Suni century (except Iran)
-Turks will now rule until 20th century, with end of Ottoman empire--one ethnic group in power is amazing
-v. tolerant polity centered in Anatolia
-legitimize their power (since not direct descendants, and are foreigners) through charitable endowments--wakf
-started building huge tombs |
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Term
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Definition
=king, ruler
-adopted by Safavid rulers for legit’cy, appeals to the history of monarchical rule in Iran
-shanameh, Book of Kings |
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Term
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Definition
-founder of Safavid Dynasty proper
- adopted Twelver Shiism so as to create more organized and hierarchical religious system; would be resilient to charismatic sufi leaders who could potentially challenge Safavid authority
-used qizilbash or charismatic warriors to gain power, then weakened them bc he realized that another charismatic leader could easily take power from him |
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Definition
-last powerful Mughal emperor before son and descendants lost power and British took over
-tried unsuccessfully to unite Central Asia and India into a huge Suni empire to counter Safavids--“World Ruler”
-conservative backlash, fall of Mughals
-built Taj Mahal |
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Term
| Shajar al-Durr (Tree of Pearls) |
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Definition
-a female sultan of the Ayyubid dynasty who took control after her husband, the sultan, died (did not want to alarm ppl or incite a revolution)
-Her reign marked the end of the Ayyubid dynasty bc after her death, the Mamluk dynasties took control.
-minted coins with her name, which indicated she was the true ruler |
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Term
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Definition
-charismatic founder of Safavid sufi order, from which Safavid dynasty took name
-Preached a restored/purified Islam and fight against heterodox muslims and Christians. -his descendants formed the qizilbash who were instrumental in the Safavid rise to power.
-charismatic leadership of sufi mystics that had led al-Din to become powerful was rejected by Shah Ismail after his ascension to power because feared challenge to authority |
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Term
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Definition
- refers to a denomination of Islam founded by those who were supporters of Ali ibn Abu Talib son-in-law of prophet and believe that the polit/relig’s successors to Muhammad should be from Ali and Fatimah’s family
-believe imams have knowledge of concealed truth, and a special relationship/ “direct line” with Allah
-“a vanquished people from the start” refers to murder of Ali’s son and family of Ali at Battle of Karbala, who they believe true rulers (imam) are descended from; have days of mourning each year in calendar
- the largest non-orthodox Islamic group; has three different individual denominations, Twelvers, Seveners, and Fivers. |
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Term
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Definition
= path
- lodges where sufis gathered, or teaching institutions
-spread during the medieval period because sufi mysticism provided counter to the strict legalist doctrinal way to reach god (madrasas) |
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Term
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Definition
= wool; wore woolen cloaks
-mystics of Islamic tradition, as old as Islam
-ascetics who try to get closer to God through religious ecstasy (as Muhhammad did)--transcend the sectional divisions among Muslims
-many orders with many diff rules
-believe in and worship saints, or “god’s friends,” who have a personal relationship with god--helpful intermediaries
-close links w shi’ites--venerate their imams |
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Term
| Süleyman Kanuni/The Magnificent |
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Definition
-builds Suleymaniyae, an amazing mosque/tomb complex
-centralized strong authority--expanded Ottoman state and created law code
-recruited janissaries or extremely loyal slave soldiers through the devshirme system
-compare to Western rulers--saw him as their adversary (crown); both a western monarch and a muslim ruler
-under him, Ottomans had Golden Age, 1520-1566 |
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Term
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Definition
-important because now historically Muslim rulers are no longer direct descendants or successors to the prophet
-he who possesses power--compare to caliph, who has religious power b/c is related to prophet; has religious auth’ty, but through a diff source than caliphates--compare to pope
-first sultans = Saljuks circa 1100
-3 gunpowder empires ruled by this kind of strong, central authority |
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Term
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Definition
= custom
-used to be that to know how to apply Qu’ran in daily life, or how to be a Muslim, would look to local custom of a place (sunna)→eventually, word evolves to mean the custom of the prophet, or what he said and did
-collected/found in the hadith |
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Term
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Definition
-built by Shahajahan, “King of the World,” 1627-1658
-tomb for his favorite wife, which is v significant bc it was only in the 9th and 10th centuries that mausoleum building began--Muhammad did not believe in fancy graves-shouldn’t be marked, bc all men are equal
-symbol of Golden Age of Mughals, and the most beautiful piece of Islamic architecture, ever
-monuments for immortality are the hallmark of Mughals, not wakf and mosques like other gunpowder empires |
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Term
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Definition
-one of the legendary Mongol world conquerors, along lines of Genghis Khan
-most rulers in Muslim world/Asia call themselves descendants of him or Ghengis--no more getting legit’cy thru prophet (e.g. Mughal ruler Barbur)→advent of Jahangir or world conqueror ancestroy
-great patron of the arts--influx of images to Islamic culture |
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Term
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Definition
-built by Mehmet II, “The Conqueror” as the Royal palace in Istanbul
-its irregularity shows it was not planned, but rather built up over time (improved by Suleyman)
-increasingly hierarchical as you walk further in--get off horse, remove shoes, barred from certain rooms--all the way to reception
-animal tilework--clearly this is not a mosque |
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Term
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Definition
= ulama, learned men
-the learned men of Islam, specifically legal scholars, whose status is neither validated by the state or any formal religious institution, but established by the reputation the person held among the other ulema.
-Sunnis believed that leaders (caliphs) should submit to the legal and theological doctrines established by the ulema. |
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Term
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Definition
= community
-refers to the community of believers. Muhammad established in Medina in 622
-important because established equality before God and ignored tribal affiliations; major obstacle to Islamic unity in the early period; attracted many marginalized people or poor people. |
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Term
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Definition
- an elite military household based around a strong military leader--v loyal to their strongman; would covert to Islam
-would ascend to throne by fighting eachother, in regimes that were based on military meritocracy-poltiically unstable in same way ghazi are
-Mongols, Tirmurians, and Safavids would have to deal with how to create a centralized authority with the existence of these “chieftans/lordships” |
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Term
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Definition
-a post created under the Seljuks
-famous vizier creates free colleges |
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Term
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Definition
-a sect of Islam developed by ibn Abdul Al-Wahhab to purge islam of its impurities and false interpretations he saw in Arabian peninsula
-Wahhabism is dominant religion in Saudi Arabia today--spread b/c they control hajj centers
-claims to rely only on Qur’an and Hadith; criticized for being strict |
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Term
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Definition
-charitable endowments such as colleges, fountains, caravanserai, built by rulers in cities they conquer so pop’n will accept foreign rule
-first done by Saljuks as a way to legitimize the authority of their polity/sultanate
-very important in Islamic world and thought; not just palaces and mosques anymore--new buildings and institutions characterize Dynastic period |
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Term
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Definition
-Turkiq, soon to be Mamluk, military leader turned ruler, slave background, very courageous and charismatic--gahzi
-he stopped the “unstoppable” Mongols in Battle of Ayu Jalut, 1260, in Egypt--so called “Defender of Islam” and memorialized in tons of stories, legends, coins, plates
-responsible for stability of Mamluk regime (1260-1517) b.c wouldn’t expand beyond Syria + Egypt, and used wakf (egg-shaped mosques in Cairo) |
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