Term
| Criterion Related Validity Coefficient |
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Definition
| Definition: 1. Coefficient representing the usefulness of a predictor for predicting criterion outcomes 2. Uses correlation 3. High coefficients indicate high test scorers tend to do better on performance measures 4. Higher coefficients give HR officers confidence in their selection/screening procedures Taylor and Russell use of validity coefficient in selection of employees: 1. Usefulness of validity coefficient dependent on selection ratio and base rate of success 2. Selection ratio: number of openings per number of applicants 3. Base rate of success: unscreened employees who are currently successful on the job 4. When validity coefficient is moderate to high it is useful for informing selection decisions when base rate is moderate and selection ratio is low 5. Validity coefficient may not be useful if the base rate of success is very high or very low |
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Definition
| Adding measures to an assessment program 1. To improve validity coefficient, and thereby the predictive validity Assessing a wider range of relevant skills, abilities, and knowledge 1. Increases predictive validity of assessment procedures, adding confidence to process of identifying probable successful performers 2. Increases the likelihood that more of the relevant qualities will be measured |
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Definition
| A calculation 1. Used to assess the consistency of a measurement instrument or procedure, internally, with different forms, or across time A statistic 1. Computed to assess the consistency in judgment of two or more human raters who are engaged in the same rating task 2. Test-retest, equivalent-form, internal consistency (e.g., split-half), and inter-rater are all versions of this calculation Test-retest 1. Coefficient of stability 2. Measurement given to same group at two different times 3. Risk of contamination from carryover of first test to the second test Equivalent-form 1. Coefficient of equivalence 2. Parallel forms of the instrument are given to the same group at the same time 3. Difficulty generating two forms Internal consistency 1. Split-half or Cronbach's alpha 2. Correlate first half to second half or correlate every other item 3. Widely used in I/O Inter-rater 1. Correlate the scores of various raters 2. Important in I/O for job analysis ratings and employment interviews |
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Definition
| About 1. Degree to which a predictive relationship empirically established in one context spreads to other populations or other contexts 2. If a predictor, e.g., a test of general cognitive ability, is found to be valid with these larger groups, then this validity could be generalized to other, smaller organizations that have workers in roughly similar jobs 3. A more general measure, i.e., one that is statistically valid because it is based on a sample sufficiently large, is much more valuable than a task-specific measure whose validity is questionable because it was assessed with a small sample 4. Concern: Differential validity - when the validity of a predictor is substantially different for different groups - possible discrimination. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Planning and processing moves undertaken by an organization to ensure products/services serve intended purposes . "Intended purposes" defined by users of the product or services Process to ensure QA Assessments conducted over time to determine reliability. Controlling and monitoring materials, processes, management, and personnel Quality Control QC Finding defects/errors before customer presented with product. Based on organizational standards and expectations, not external feedback. QC can inform QA process Total Quality Management (TQM) Attempting to embed QA in all aspects of organization. Assigning responsibility for QA to organization's production, process, and distribution members |
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Term
| Taylor-Russell Validity Model |
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Definition
| Predictors of future success of screening/assessments during hiring 1. Criterion-related validity coefficient determines the accuracy of the program 2. When coefficients are modest leads to doubt about the utility of the hiring screening program Validity coefficient utility improves with two other situational variables 1.Selection ratio: Number of applicants per number of openings a. When high, indicates that most applicants who apply will be hired, includes many who will be unsuccessful b. When low, indicates few applicants hired per number applied, minimizes inclusion of unsuccessful candidates 2. Base rates: Percentage of existing employees who are successful a. When high, indicates that most employees are successful, thus most candidates will be as well and the test won't be helpful or necessary b. When low, indicates the test won't discriminate those who won't be successful c. When close to .50, validity coefficients best able to determine success of the candidate 3. Combined best scenario: Selection ratio is low, base rate is moderate, then even lower validity coefficients are informative |
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Term
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Definition
| Adverse Impact is a legal term that refers to the potentially unintentiaonal discrimination against a protected group. 1. Discrimination can be claimed if evidence indicates that one group is receiving a beneficial outcome at a lower rate than another group. 2. Disparate treatment occurs when applicants from a particular group or groups go through different selection, placement, or advancement procedures than other groups. 3. Unfairness occurs when there are differences on predictor test scores for minorities and non-monorities that do not correspond with criterion scores. About Adverse Impact 1. When one group receives more favorable outcomes than another as the result of a particular selection, placement, and advancement procedure 2. One group's percentage of favorable outcomes from a selection-placement-advancement procedure is less than 80 percent (or 4/5) of the percentage of favorable outcomes of another group 3. A valid, job-related selection or promotion procedure favors members of one group more than members of other groups 4. A smaller portion of favorable outcomes is available to one group compared to others, not because procedures were different between groups (disparate treatment), but because a common procedure favored one group more than another Methods to mitigate Adverse Impact 1. Separate cutoff scores for different groups 2. Banding: using ranges of scores where all scores within a range are considered equivalent 3. Selection of predictors determined to be valid and reliable 4. Prevent "unfairness" by finding predictors that are reliable, and do not favor one group over another. 5. To remain compliant, validate that the procedure is job-performance related and that no other procedure could be executed with less Adverse Impact. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Method to describe jobs and human attributes necessary to perform them Focus 1. Selection: choosing the right person for the job 2. Placement: assigning person with appropriate assignments 3. Training and Development: modification of knowledge, skills and abilities 4. Job Redesign: remaking the assignment fit person more appropriately Components 1. Determining Knowledge, Skills, Abilities and Other characteristics (KSAOs) necessary for job performance 2. Analyst groups "tasks" into positions, then into "jobs," which are then grouped into "job families" 3. Task Statements: expressions/descriptions of the work 4. Subject Matter Experts (SMEs): current holders of position, supervisors, verify Task Statements Functional Job Analysis 1. Task Statements include how employee accomplishes the task (i.e., the physical, mental, and interpersonal resources called upon for job completion) Worker-based Job Analysis 1. Focused directly on KSAOs 2. Task Statements: represent KSAOs: "knowledge of," "skill in," "ability to" 3. Linkage Analysis: confirms linkage of KSAOs to immediate task Assessment of KSAOs 1. Interviews, work diaries, questionnaires, direct observation, id'ing critical incidents 2. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) |
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Term
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Definition
| About Performed when anorganization wants to understand the economic return of a human resource strategy they employ/are contemplating Utility is the dollar payoff of one strategy over another Conducted with reference to a selection or training program, and compared to performance and productivity Equation Utility Value = Rewards (profits with new strategy) x Expected payoff over time (how long strategy expected to produce benefit) x Number of applicants accommodated - Expense of strategy High utility value Strategy profitable/cost effective Effective analysis Often conducted with Utility Analysis to determine which strategy was statistically related to performance improvements |
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Term
| Taylor-Russell Selection Tables |
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Definition
| About A utility model predicting success ratio of human resource strategies based on validity, selection ratio, and base rate Definitions Tables:give information about how new selection procedures compare to old selection procedures; increases decision-making accuracy Validity:degree of accuracy of conclusions drawn from test scores or performance data; validity expressed as correlation of test score with performance score Selection ratio: proportion of the number of jobs available to the number of applicants under consideration Base rate:percentage of existing employees demonstrating successful performance Incrementalvalidity: adding additional measurement devices to selection procedure, or creating another assessment situation; helpful with low selection ratio and moderate base rate Useful selection test When base rate is moderate, around 50 percent Predicting success ratio Moderate base rate provides opportunity to use a selection procedure with higher validity. With low selection ratio, even low or moderate increases in validity can be helpful. With high selection ratio, increase in validity must be substantial to be useful, With high base rate there is little room for improvement in company. Incremental validity with low validity coefficient (.20), moderate base rate (.60) and low selection ratio (.05) is .75 |
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Definition
| Descriptors 1. An approach to managerial selection and advancement that involves multiple measure of supervisory skills and potential in a group setting 2. A method for observing and collecting information on supervisory skills of mid-level managers; not a location 3. A means of assessing managerial potential of mid-level managers by observing their performance, in a group setting, on tasks and measure associated with managerial skills Four characteristics 1. Supervisors and mid-level managers evaluated only 2. Group/team-oriented: assessing in groups of 10-20 3. Multiple evaluators used in assessment 4. A variety of assessment activities implemented Goals 1. Evaluate individuals on many dimensions 2. Use information to make predictions on typical managerial skills Kirkpatrick's Training Evaluation Model: Consists of four levels to categorize training criteria 1. Level 1: Reaction criteria (measures trainee impressions of training program) 2. Level 2: Learning criteria (assesses how much trainees learned in the training program) 3. Level 3: Behavioral criteria (Measures how well the behaviors learned in training transfer to the job) 4. Level 4: Results criteria (measures how well the training can be related to organizational outcomes) |
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Term
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Definition
| Cultural effect on testing 1. Tests designed in one culture have a tendency to reflect the history, values, and understandings of that culture 2. A test-taker from a minority culture may find test items tap things that are unknown, or items may be unclear, or they may be distracting 3. Tests generated by a majority culture may under-predict the success rates of minority test-takers on criteria variables 4. If performance on a given test does not accurately predict future performance of one group when compared to another group, (i.e., under-predicts for one group but predicts well for another), the test is considered biased, as the validity coefficients for the groups will be different |
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Term
| Five Factor Theory of Personality |
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Definition
| The Big Five Used to describe typical behavioral tendencies Model is extension of trait/individual differences research Predicting work outcomes High conscientiousness, agreeableness and emotional stability = high measures of integrity Low agreeableness, low conscientiousness, high extraversion and high neuroticism = antisocial personality dx Conscientiousness: one trait most related to job performance, and to success across virtually all occupations Most to least stable Extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, conscientiousness, neuroticism Think "OCEAN" Openness to experience: level of independence, imagination, and curiosity Conscientious: methodical approach to life, self-control and achievement orientation Extraversion/introversion:level of sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness Agreeableness: level of friendliness, likability, cooperativeness Neuroticism/emotional stability: level of calmness, anxiety, emotionality |
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Term
| Americans With Disabilities Act |
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Definition
| Requirements 1. Employers with 15 or more employees must provide the same considerations/accommodations for disabled as those who are non-disabled 2. There are reasonable accommodations in hiring and employment for those with mental or physical disabilities 3. Mandates work environment modifications to accommodate the working disabled 4. Reasonable accommodations should be made to allow the disabled access to the work environment 5. Organization can't test for sensory abilities, physical abilities, or psychopathology that could be considered a disability until after employment offered 6. Drug testing can be employed at any point 7. Mental and physical disabilities protected by ADA include: HIV/AIDS, learning disabilities, alcoholism, paraplegia, general anxiety disorder, and schizophrenia 8. Special cases of alcohol and drug addiction, recovering addicts protected when enrolled in rehabilitation 9. Current drug abusers may be fired at the discretion of the organization, but current alcohol abusers must be given the chance to rehabilitate under the ADA |
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Term
| Job Characteristics Assessment |
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Definition
| Use 1. To enhance job satisfaction and motivation 2. When used in company redesign, can improve motivation, satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover rates Assessment evaluates 1. Skill variety: can make a job more meaningful 2. Task identity: can enhance job satisfaction whether the employee does an entire job or piece of a job 3. Task significance: the more impact a task has on others, the more meaningful 4. Autonomy: freedom employees have to conduct their jobs as they see fit 5. Task feedback: enhance job satisfaction by enabling an employee to know if they are doing their jobs correctly |
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Term
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Definition
| About 1. Matching individual traits and job characteristics allows prediction of job success and satisfaction 2. Key name:John L. Holland 3. Six interest types: RIASEC Realistic (Doer) 1. Asocial, conforming, frank, genuine, materialistic, persistent, practical, inflexible, thrifty 2. Best suited: technical/mechanical jobs; values things they can see and touch; sees self as practical, realistic 3. Jobs: architect, athlete, computers, mechanic, PT, soldier, veterinarian, mechanical engineering Investigative (Thinker) 1. Analytical, cautious, critical, complex, curious, independent, intellectual, introspective, pessimistic, precise, rational, reserved, unassuming 2. Best suited: study and solve math or science problems, avoids leading, selling, persuading people; sees self as precise, scientific, intellectual 3. Jobs: economist, finance, lawyer, psychologist, surgeon, professor Artistic (Creator) 1. Complicated, disorderly, emotional, expressive, idealistic, imaginative, impractical, impulsive, independent, introspective, intuitive, nonconforming, sensitive, open 2. Best suited: creative activities: art, drama, crafts, writing; avoids highly ordered or repetitive activities; sees self as expressive, original, independent 3. Jobs: actor/performer, graphic designer, musician, painter Social (Helper) 1. Ascendant, cooperative, patient, friendly, generous, helpful, idealistic, empathic, kind, persuasive, responsible, social, tactful, understanding, warm 2. Best suited: helping people: teaching, counseling, nursing, giving information; avoids machines, tools to achieve goals; sees self as helpful, friendly, trustworthy 3. Jobs: counselor, education, physician, social worker, business trainer, occupational therapist Enterprising (Persuader) 1. Inquisitive, adventurous, agreeable, ambitious, domineering, energetic, exhibitionistic, excitement-seeking, extroverted, flirtatious, optimistic, self-confident, sociable, talkative 2. Best suited: leading and persuading people, sell things and ideas, avoids activities requiring careful observation and scientific, analytical thinking; politics, leadership, business; sees self as energetic, ambitious, sociable 3. Jobs: administration, business/MBA, law/politics, public-relations, retail, management Conventional (Organizer) 1. Careful, conforming, conscientious, defensive, efficient, inflexible, methodical, obedient, orderly, persistent, practical, prudish, thrifty, unimaginative 2. Best suited: numbers, records, machines, set and orderly ways; avoids ambiguous, unstructured activities; sees self as orderly, good at following a set plan 3. Jobs: banking, payroll, receptionist, secretary, technical writer Combinations of interest types 1. ECR: conforming personalities 2. SAI: non-conforming personalities 3. RI: introverted personalities 4. ES: extroverted personalities Possible Limits of Holland's Theory 1. Discrimination cross-culturally, socioeconomic status Success and class considerations 1. Strongest relationship between interest scores and future occupational success found in middle-class Self-Directed Search (SDS) 1. An education and career planning guide 2. Provides an interpretive report to help people make education and career choices. |
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Term
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Definition
| The use of one or multiple techniques to assess potential performance of a job candidate, such as interviews, work samples, biodata, andpersonality or cognitive tests 1.Structured and Unstructured Interviews: Structured interviews have better predictive validity than anunstructured format or subjective interviewing methods 2.StructuredInterview:enhances predictive validity in combination with testofgeneral cognitive ability 3.Biodata: Information collected about previous jobs, education, andpersonal history; a good predictor of some organizationalbehavior,such as turnover 4. Work Sample: measurejob skills by taking samples of behavior in realistic jobsituations;good predictors of job performance; less likely todiscriminate against minorities (betterat assessing motor than verbal skills) 5.Cognitive& Personality Tests: need to consider validity, utility and fairness issues when selecting these tools 6.Multiple Hurdle System: involves a minimum cut-off being set on one predictor that entitles candidate to proceed to next hurdle 7.Multiple Cut-off Selection Technique: applicant must succeed on all predictors; tests not administered in any particular order Note:Watch for discrimination, Adverse Impact (remember 4/5s rule, 80%) |
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Term
| Realistic Job Description |
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Definition
| Also known as "realistic job preview" 1. Providing practical information about a job, including information about the tasks and workplace 2. Made available to potential applicants to aid with decision whether to apply 3. Can lower rates of turnover |
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Term
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Definition
| Objective tool for employee selection 1. Uses job-related questions 2. Scoring based on predetermined criteria 3. Enhances predictive validity when combined with test of general cognitive ability 4. Better than unstructured interviews, which assess personality more |
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Term
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Definition
| Techniques used by organizations to determine value of a particular job relative to other jobs within an organization Determinations inform decisions about compensation Used to determine equal work for equal pay (comparable worth) Job analysis: evaluates External Equity (wages compared to other employees) and Internal Equity (wages within organization) Value: identified by compensable factors: skill, responsibility/accountability, working conditions Ex: receptionist: requires lower level of skill, lower level of responsibility, operates in safe, comfortable conditions = low-value job (low paying) Job analysis gathers data; Job evaluation sets wages and salaries based on results of the job analysis Job evaluation does not assess employee performance |
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Term
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Definition
| Legislation 1964 1. Passed to ensure opportunities for all social groups to realize their employment potential Congress 1. Passed this set of laws in 1964 and updated them subsequently to reduce unfair discrimination against minorities and underrepresented groups 2. Enacted in 1964, this law established the EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunities Commission) to determine if there is "just cause" to sue an employer over discriminatory actions 3. A law that provides uniform guidelines and a commission (EEOC) to protect members of protected groups from discrimination in hiring, selection, promotion, evaluation, etc. 4. Title VII: most related to I/O and human resource specialists 5. Five protected groups with minority/underrepresented members: race, gender, religion, color, national origin 6. Modifications included: opportunities/evals related to training, promotion, retention, performance appraisal, selection, retaliation, age (Age Discrimination Act) and disability (Amer. with Disabilities Act) |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Biographical informationcollected for job applicants, admissions applicants, and candidates for advancement 2. Usually collected on application forms and resumes; useful inpredicting various aspects of job performance based on past employmentexperience 3. Predicting job performance and behavior withinformation on a candidate's educational experience, work experience, serviceactivities, attitudes and opinions, and similar information 4. Useful in prediction of turnover, absenteeism, productivity, and workplace honesty; less subject to bias than testand interview data |
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Term
| Super's Career Development Theory |
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Definition
| Donald Super Premise 1. Applying lifespan and life space into a coherent career identity development theory; graphically represented as a life-career rainbow a. Life space refers to our social roles b. Lifespan refers to the stage of life or stage of career 2. Not all people go through all stages 3. For those who start new careers they may recycle through the stages Growth stage 1. Ages 4-13 2. Developing a personal self-concept 3. Understanding of meaning and utility of work Exploration stage 1. Ages 14-24 2. Examining oneself 3. Developing a realistic sense of self 4. Trying out different roles 5. Expanding awareness of vocational possibilities Establishment stage 1. Ages 25-45 2. Focusing efforts into a single career 3. Advancing in that career 4. Phase with the most creative output in one's vocation Maintenance stage 1. Ages 45-65 2. Emphasizes keeping employment 3. Identifying personal limitations 4. Focus on concerns over newly hired competition 5. Learning new skills to keep up Disengagement stage 1. Ages 65 plus 2. Process of pulling away from one's duties 3. Reducing responsibilities at work for mental, physical, or emotional reasons 4. Eventually this results in retirement and immersion in other life roles The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey An assessment often used as a tool for career counseling to select the right occupation for an individual. |
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Term
| Tiedeman and O'Hara's Career Development |
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Definition
| Key Figures:Tiedeman and O'Hara Premise: Cognitive-developmental approach to career development. Acquisition of one's vocational identity includes being part of career field and maintenance of one's own identity. Career development is an element of one's ego identity. Continual process throughout one's lifetime. Assumes everyone is responsible for the choices they make, since the world is not deterministic. Processes of differentiation and integration: Differentiation: Making distinctions about different aspects of oneself and one's environment. Integration: Unifying these different aspects and results in making better decisions, more refined goals, and developing useful plans. Decision-making: Seven stages: Exploration, crystallization, choice, clarification, induction, reformation, and integration. Styles of decision-making: Planning (the most effective), intuitive, impulsive, agonizing, delaying, paralytic, fatalistic, and compliant. |
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Term
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Definition
| Provide employees with information about their overall performance and/or their performance on specific tasks 1. Feedback typically involves supervisor's objective assessment of productivity, coupled with subjective evaluation of quality of effort 2. Feedback can be used by employees to test their capabilities, and assist managers with decisions of change or upgrading work process 3. Important in performance improvement, employee development, training, process improvement Feedback related to goal-setting theory 1. Specific and difficult goals enhance motivation and performance, and keep behavior goal-oriented 2. Feedback in goal-setting is specific, accurate, timely, constructive, and job related 3. Employee performance at higher level when Feedback is received 4. When employee is involved with goal-setting, goals made more challenging, and are more motivating 360-degree Feedback (multisource Feedback) 1. Feedback about a target employee collected from co-workers, supervisors, subordinates, and "target" employee 2. Info classified in three dimensions: people (workplace relationships), change (implementing goal/vision), and structure (ability to organize info, time, and work) 3. 360-degree strength: employees and supervisors compare self-eval with others' evals 4. Employee tends to see self-ability more favorably than others see them, also rate self better at workplace interpersonal relations |
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Term
| Frame of Reference Training |
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Definition
| 1. Focused on correcting possible rater distortions resulting from unintentional rater biases Familiarizes raters with 1. Nature of job performance 2. Content and nature of performance 3. Good/bad work-related behaviors Parts of training 1. Identify multidimensional nature of performance 2. Clarify anchors on scales used 3. Provide opportunity for rating practice using rating scale 4. Provide feedback on accuracy of ratings Frame of Reference Training 1. More effective at increasing rater accuracy than psychometric approach 2. Practice and feedback increase effectiveness in information storage and memory retrieval |
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Term
| Incentive/Reinforcement Theory |
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Definition
| Assumes that desired behaviors can be obtained through use of incentive systems or tangible rewards Rewards are contingent on individual units of productivity Learning Theory's Instrumental Conditioning: underlies Incentive Theory Assumes workers motivated primarily by external contingencies of reinforcement or punishment To change worker motivation: adjust the way reinforcements are delivered (salaries, benefits, days off, other perks), or punish (withhold salary, benefits, perks; perhaps even terminate or threaten termination) Reinforcement can be positive (obtaining something good) or negative(avoiding something bad) Rate, or likelihood of, responding increased if behaviors reinforced (i.e., receive a reward) Punishment: results in reduction in, or stopping of, responding Highest rates of responding: when individuals are on partial reinforcement schedule (i.e., receiving reward based on time interval (e.g., a salary)or number of units produced (piece work or commission)) |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Albert Bandura This theory 1. Combines elements of learning theory and cognitive approaches 2. Learning theorists focus only on observable events, not internal processes 3. Bandura and colleagues noted that strict learning theories didn't account for vicarious learning 4. Emphasizes the role of observation of models 5. Vicarious learning through internal representation of observed behaviors 6. Observations stored in memory 7. Performance is dependent on ability, practice, opportunity 8. Decided to copy behavior depends on perceived likelihood of reward/punishment Workplace applications 1. Behavioral modeling in training 2. Video demonstration or direct observation of successful/experienced others 3. For both managers and employees 4. Learn or enhance skills 5. Particularly useful for interpersonal skills 6. Krumboltz collaborates Social Learning Theory and making career decisions, emphasizing the importance of: Role models, genetics, environment, learning experiences, and skills. |
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Term
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Definition
| Training can be beneficial, but it can also be expensive Training is a systematic acquisition of 1. Skills, concepts, attitudes 2. Results in improved performance 3. First task is job analysis of all positions needing training Components include 1. Needs assessment: three subcomponents a. Organizational analysis: does training solve problems of the organization b. Task analysis: objectives and instructional goals for the training c. Person analysis: individual employees reviewed for deficits in organizational objectives 2. Learning principles 3. Transfer of training: training should transfer well to the actual job 4. Evaluation of the program Effectiveness depends on 1. Feedback: immediate and ongoing 2. Over-learning: involves learning by repeating trained behavior until mistakes are not made and mastery is developed 3. Frequent opportunities to practice 4. Promotion of transfer of training: how well does the training match the job Evaluating a training program 1. Conduct a formative evaluation providing staff with information to improve the program 2. Evaluates the cost factors, subject material, and trainee characteristics of training programs 3. Involves four components: reaction, learning, behavioral, and bottom line/results criteria a. Reaction criteria: do participants like/dislike the training b. Learning criteria: how much do the participants learn c. Behavioral criteria: participant change in performance after training d. Bottom line/result criteria: value of the program in light of organizational goals Types of training 1. Classroom: simulated work environment, no emphasis on production or errors, focus on individual attention from trainers 2. Vestibule: simulated work setting, including mock assembly or flight simulators a. Useful in situations where errors are high, on-the-job training is too risky, and repetitive practice is necessary 3. On-the-job: under guidance of skilled worker a. Economically advantageous, but it slows production and increases accidents b. Organizational objectives are not always clearly presented from one employee to another Management development is training managers through 1. Multisource feedback 2. Developmental assessment centers 3. Developmental assignments 4. Job rotation 5. Action learning 6. Coaching 7. Mentoring 8. Outdoor challenge programs 9. Personal growth programs |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the employee selection process Structured or unstructured 1. Gather different types of information Structured interviews 1. More objective procedure, set of specific job-related question 2. All interviewees given same questions 3. Responses are scored based on predetermined criteria 4. Focus more on job knowledge, interpersonal and social skills, and problem-solving ability 5. Better predictive validity because of task-based job demand focus 6. Most predictive when combined with tests of general cognitive ability Unstructured interviews 1. Questions vary from candidate to candidate 2. Can be open-ended 3. Subjective 4. Gather more impression of general intelligence, work, and educational experience 5. May drift toward personality issues |
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Term
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Definition
| Actions or behaviors relevant to the organization's goals, measured in terms of each individual's proficiency 1. Observable things employees do to contribute to the goals of the organization 2. Determined by declarative knowledge (knowledge about "what"), procedural knowledge (knowledge about "how to"), and motivation 3. Indirect variables positively correlated with job performance: interest, higher levels of training, experience, and incentives 4. Performance equation: P = f{A*M}: performance is a function of ability and motivation 5. Supervisor's ratings used to measure Job Performance |
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Term
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Definition
| Effectiveness of an individual in their vocation or occupation Overlaps substantially with "job performance." Difference: Job Success used in reference to a particular measure or set of measures; while job performance: used less specifically to refer to employee activity and motivation. Job success Assessment: Objective vs. Subjective Objective: free from judgement or bias; Subjective: rater bias possible 1. Objective measures of output and work samples 2. Supervisor evaluations (subjective) 3. Peer and self evaluations (subjective) 4. Direct observation (subjective) 5. Job knowledge can be tested Evaluation and assessment: 1. Determines productivity on which managers can rely 2. Ensures employees fairly evaluated 3. Determines rewards for good performance 4. Helps with remedying poor performance 5. Can offer some protection to employers when complaints made about unfairness Predictors of Job success: 1. Cognitive tests: capacity for reasoning, intelligence, knowledge acquisition, memory; considered best predictor 2. Work Samples: examples of work-related behavior under realistic job conditions 3. Personality traits: conscientiousness most predictive 4. Interviews: best if job-relevant vs. personality traits 5. Biodata: biographical information, education, experience... |
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Term
| Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS) |
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Definition
| BARS 1. A type of performance evaluation: a combination of ratings-based procedures and the critical incident technique 2. Behavior critical incidents are ranked, sorted into relevant job dimensions, and used as subjective evaluative anchors by evaluators (critical incidents often framed in terms of expectations: "behavioral expectation scales") Dimensions of a job 1. Characterized by critical representative behaviors, which serve as judgmental anchors in the evaluation process Evaluators ratings 1. Based on their expectations that employees can engage in critical behaviors that are more or less important to the job Advantages 1. Job-specific 2. Strategically focused 3. Has face-validity 4. Considered a fair evaluation 5. Reduces rater bias and increases inter-rater reliability Disadvantages of behavioral anchors for BARS 1. Time-consuming 2. Requires extensive interaction with subject matter and experts |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. The ability to generate many ideas and concepts quickly, and then to sort the good ones from the bad 2. Generating many ideas without self-censorship or organizational constraint 3. The ability to combine intelligence, openness to experience, and divergent/convergent thinking into quality idea generation 4. In organizations, establishing teams of knowledgeable, motivated, and diverse members to generate mission-relevant ideas and solutions Overall 1. Creativity appears to be trait-like 2. Primarily frontal-lobe 3. Reliably associated with "openness to experience" in Big Five personality traits 4. Related to intelligence, convergent thinking 5. Can be trained/taught 6. Creative people tend to be attracted to complexity |
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Term
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Definition
| Definition and purpose 1. Surveillance of employees on the job 2. May include technology for record or observation 3. Collecting information for job analyses or performance appraisals 4. Minimize theft or misconduct Job analysis 1. Identifying relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities for successful job performance 2. Monitoring on-the-job behaviors can help identify the KSAs 3. This info can be used for designing performance appraisals Performance data 1. Employee Monitoring can influence behavior when trying to collect data 2. Social facilitation; performance on well-known/easy tasks might improve, performance on difficult/unfamiliar tasks may be inhibited with observation Resentment 1. Monitoring that seems arbitrary, capricious, or overly intrusive may cause resentment 2. Resentment can distract from tasks 3. Can lower job satisfaction 4. Can increase turnover |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Methods used to evaluate and understand individual workers 2. Tests, interviews, observations and other methods used to understand performance, skill and training levels, aptitude, and organizational processes 3. Outcomes of behavioral observation, testing (achievement, aptitude, intelligence, and personality), and occupational evaluation Uses of Results 1. Employee screening 2. Progress/productivity evaluation 3. Decisions about employee counseling and rehabilitation Means of Assessment 1. Norm-referenced tests, interviews, observations, and informal assessment procedures 2. Often structured to address different areas of functioning: behavioral assessment, achievement and aptitude assessment, intelligence assessment, neuropsychological assessment, occupational assessment, and personality assessment 3. Biodata and fitness evaluations 4. Change agents who initiate and manage the process of organizational change. a. Internal change agents are selected from within the organization. b. External change agents are consultants from outside of the organization. |
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Term
| Total Quality Management (TQM) |
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Definition
| Key Figure 1. William Demming Premise 1. Unique organizational structure emphasizing team directed effort toward improving quality and meeting customer demands. Origins 1. Conceptually organized in the US, Japan and Europe 2. Japan early adopter of TQM TQM 1. A management style that emphasizes quality over quantity 2. Managing organizational efforts by involving employees and customers 3. Emphasizes employee involvement in eliminating errors and flaws at every organizational level 4. Involves multidirectional communication, team-goals and rewards 5. Employees especially dissatisfied when promised particpation is not followed up 6. Reduction in ratio of managers to non-managers 7. Fairness emphasized for all employees 8. Job changes focus on autonomy, feedback, significance, skill and variety of the task |
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Definition
| An employee comparison method 1. Comparing all individuals within a group to each other or, comparing those with same job title on a various dimension of a job or task 2. Relative measure of job performance, reduces rater bias 3. Can be useful for downsizing 4. Process is precise, but time consuming 5. Most appropriate when goal is to distinguish between workers' performance Forced Distribution technique: Another means to assess worker's performance 1. Assigns an employee to a predetermined category based on one or more dimensions of job performance (top 10% / lowest 10%) 2. Based on normal distribution which may result in skewed data if employees' performances do not fit a normal distribution. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Peer nominations (identifications): most useful for identifying persons with extreme high or low levels of KSAOs (Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other characteristics) 2. Peer ratings: best for providing feedback 3. Peer rankings: best for discriminating various levels of performance from highest to lowest on each dimension Consistent finding 1. Peer appraisals generally free from bias 2. Useful for predicting future success or outcomes |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Identified by job incumbents and supervisors as particularly effective or ineffective predictors of job performance 2. Behaviors that are particularly effective or ineffective in job performance; often used in employee evaluation systems 3. Behaviors that contribute significantly to successful or unsuccessful job performance, sometimes compiled and tallied by supervisors to counsel and evaluate employees 4. Conveyed in narrative and descriptive format 5. Not typically useful for quantitative uses, e.g., comparing employees, deciding compensation, promotional consideration 6. Helpful in counseling/coaching employees, promoting positive behaviors, performance appraisals, correcting negative behaviors, establishing objectives for training |
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Term
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Definition
| Key Figure: Fred Fiedler Model: Fiedler's Contingency Model of Leadership, which includes the Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Theory and Scale. Scale: Ask leader to rate co-workers on scales 1 to 8. If most co-workers rated high = relationship-oriented leader. Minimize importance of completing tasks successfully, emphasize importance of relations in the workplace. Best in moderately favorable situations. If most co-workers rated low = task-oriented leader. More effort in attempting to complete a group task more efficiently, minimizing importance of relations in the workplace. Best in unfavorable situations. Best Fit: Effectiveness of the leaders is dependent on situational factors. Low-LPC leaders tend to be most effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations. High-LPC leaders tend to be most effective in moderate situations. |
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Term
| Rater Bias: Leniency Bias, Halo Effect, Central Tendency |
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Definition
| Rater Bias 1. During any evaluation of an employee, the rater may make inadvertent systematic distorted ratings Leniency/strictness bias 1. Different ends of the same spectrum 2. Extreme ratings (overly high or low) throughout all domains for all employees Central tendency bias 1. Opposite of leniency/strictness bias 2. Always rating employees with middle-range scores Halo effect 1. One aspect of an employee or global impression of an employee affects all other ratings of that employee 2. May be good or bad Reducing Rater Bias 1. Training can reduce bias 2. Using behavior anchors, such as critical incidents |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. The tendency to avoid the use of the extremes of rating scales 2. An unwillingness to take extreme positions in worker evaluations Leads to 1. Loss of information and often less accurate ratings because raters tend not to stay away from extreme rating; ratings are homogeneous Controlling for bias 1. Conduct adequate training of raters 2. Use a forced-choice format: neutral or middle positions not available 3. Likert scales especially susceptible to Central Tendency Bias |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. The tendency to be consistent across evaluative domains in employee ratings 2. A rater gives employees the same or similar ratings across dimensions of evaluation 3. A worker receives the same or similar evaluations for all dimensions of his/her workplace obligations 4. Due to general need for our cognitions/judgments to be internally consistent To minimize 1. Conduct adequate training of raters 2. Structure rating process (e.g., checklists) |
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Term
| The Ohio State Leadership Studies |
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Definition
| A leadership model that: Emphasizes task and person leadership styles by assessing job-related behaviors Two major leadership behaviors: Offers Consideration (aka Consideration) and Initiates Structure Consideration: emphasizes trust, respect, warmth, concern, support, and rapport between leader and subordinate High levels of Consideration = person-centered leadership, and consistently related to greater subordinate satisfaction Initiating Structure: emphasizes formal goals, deadlines, task assignment, standard procedures, and high performance standards. Initiating Supervisors: defines their goals and make their expectations clear Univ. of Michigan: Employee-Centered and Job-Centered leadership styles parallel Consideration and Initiating Fred Fiedler: Contingency Model of Leadership: Socio-Emotional and Task-Oriented |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. A leadership approach that involves transactions between leaders and followers in which rewards are delivered for performance, and punishments are delivered as correction Actions by followers assumed to self-interest (obtain incentive) a. Contrasts charismatic leadership which assumes actions based on internalization of the leader b. Contrasts transformational leadership which assumes actions based on organizational values An application of reinforcement/incentive theory to leadership; leader-member transactions are characterized by rewards and punishments a. Rates of responding increase with reinforcement and decrease/stop with punishment Contingent reward strategy: good performance linked to desired outcomes Management by exception strategy: leader does not intervene unless followers deviate from standards |
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Term
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Definition
| Definition 1. Self-managing groups, semi-autonomous work groups Characterized by 1. Distributed leadership, shared decision-making, shared goals, cross-training, and job rotations Decision-making quality is maximized by 1. Group training to discuss doubts, concerns, differences of opinion, recognize ethics of decision Shared responsibility 1. Assess each other's performance, recommend pay raises, job redesign, hiring, training Cross-training 1. Mandatory 2. Learning skills to perform all group functions 3. Reinforced through routine switching of jobs tasks in the groups 4. Cross-training provides coverage during absenteeism of a member Outcomes 1. Workplace teams that have higher levels of satisfaction, higher productivity, and less turnover because they are self-led Difficulty 1. Implementation because employees and managers resist them 2. Distrust and resistance to change likely drive the resistance 3. Attitudes of success about the team are localized to the team and do not generalize to positive attitudes toward the organization as a whole Strategies for resistance to change 1. Gaining support from individuals with power 2. Educating and addressing the fears of employees 3. Getting employees involved 4. Providing feedback and rewards 5. Highlighting continuous change, once successful, to avoid the same resistance in the future. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. The substitution of machines, or process, for humans in order to complete work tasks Concerns 1. Can been seen as competition for human jobs 2. Can be problematic if not properly monitored by humans 3. Machine-paced tasks: Can cause employee stress due to lack of control over the process and little cognitive effort being required to complete the work. Advantages 1. Beneficial in many situations not optimal for humans a. Work in extreme conditions b. Work that is important, but tedious c. Work that is repetitive, physical, and mistake-prone for humans 2. Frees humans to work on more satisfying, valuable work |
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Term
| Centralization and Decentralization |
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Definition
| Related to issues of governance Centralized: information management reports up through a single chain of command Centralized focus: coordination, processes, standardization and consolidation of equipment, technology, customer and vendor management, and reduction of redundancies and improved management efficiencies Centralized utilized when business environment is stable and predictable Decentralized: information distributed through a multitude of functional and regional command chains Decentralized focus: allowing business units to make autonomous decisions about information and customer-related requirements. Decentralized utilized when business environment is changing and competitive |
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Term
| Administrative Model of Decision-Making |
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Definition
| 1. Alternative to Rational-Economic Decision-Making Model 2. Recognizes need to make decisions in a fast-paced, competitive, and complex business world 3. Mitigates against slow, methodical decision making 4. Bounded rationality: lack of time, information, and financial resources to consider every possible alternative in real business 5. Bounded discretion: ethical or moral considerations can limit solutions considered 6. Satisficing: choosing the first alternative that meets the minimum criterion for a solution vs. optimal solution (satisfactory + suffice) Organizational Decision-Making 1. Carnegie Model: an organizational elaboration of Administrative Decision-Making Model 2. Bounded rationality: applied to decisions made by coalitions of managers 3. Organizational goals are often inconsistent with individual departments within an organization 4. Bounded reality in organizations due to organizational politics, competing goals, and social dynamics 5. Satisficing: typically achieved through bargaining, accepting the satisfactory vs. the optimal solution, allowing achievement of multiple goals |
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Term
| Rational-Economic Model of Decision-Making |
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Definition
| 1. Exhaustively compile all relevant information, investigate all possible solutions, and choose best one Steps 1. Monitor the decision environment 2. Define the problem 3. Specify the objectives 4. Diagnose the problem 5. Develop alternative solutions 6. Evaluate alternatives 7. Choose the best alternative 8. Implement chosen alternative Requires 1. Collection of all relevant information 2. Enough time to search and weigh all alternatives Typical decision-making process 1. Often mindless shortcuts or biases are used to make decisions Use of Rational-Economic Model of Decision-Making 1. Serves as a guide in managerial decision-making 2. Rarely implemented, impractical, or fails becausepractical limitations of time, financial resources, and energy for data-gathering |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Similarities and differences among members Dimensions of differences 1. Demographic (ethnicity, age, gender, cultural background) 2. Psychological (traits, attitudes) 3. Functional (physical and mental abilities/restrictions, level of education/training, level of experience) Heterogeneousteams 1. Generally outperform homogeneous teams 2. Better with developing innovative solutions, but greater difficulty when task requires communication and careful coordination Personality traits 1. Homogeneity with high conscientiousness reduces social loafing, increases cohesion, and reduces conflict 2. Homogeneity with high or low extraversion can result in power struggles and lack of leadership Highly heterogeneous groups 1. Benefit from wide range of solutions, skills, and perspectives but may experience less organizational commitment, more turnover, and higher absenteeism rates Highly homogeneous groups 1. Have fewer ideas, skills and solutions, but more commitment Homogeneous groups 1. Work together better in the short term, but heterogeneous groups tend to catch up in the long run |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Patterns of information transmission and exchange between and among members of teams and groups, defining who communicates with whom, to what extent, and how often Communication paths 1. Centralized a. Communication travels to a central pivot person and is redistributed (pictured as a wheel with spokes connecting in the middle)b. Not all members have access to one another to receive info c. Associated with low job satisfaction, low speed on complex tasks, and low accuracy on complex tasks d. Allows for minimal amount of communication for high speed communication and accuracy on simple tasks e. Person in the middle reports high level of satisfaction, especially with simple task 2. Decentralized a. Members communicate directly in point-to point fashion (pictured as a circle, with all members connected and linked with other members) b. Typically all group members involved in communication c. Associated with higher level of satisfaction, but low speed and accuracy on simple tasks d. Allows for efficient and effective communication, increasing speed and accuracy on complex tasks As groups become larger (8-20+ members) 1. Decentralized Communication Networks lose advantages, while Centralized Networks become more efficient 2. Hierarchical structure often added to bring another dimension to organization, especially with Decentralized Networks 3. With Hierarchy added, more info flows downward, and the info that is communicated upward tends to be more positive, though validity of the positive info may not always be supported by facts 4. Groups with a formal Centralized Communication Network, which have an informal Decentralized Network, tend to operate more like a Decentralized Communication Network |
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Term
| Leader Characteristics vs. Manager Characteristics |
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Definition
| Both Managers and Leaders seek to influence subordinates to accomplish certain goals Nature of the goals, and the way in which subordinates are influenced, differ according to whether one is a Leader or a Manager, or both. Managers 1. has legitimate authority based on position in the organization 2. value "stability, order, and efficiency" 3. depend on goal-setting, action plans, resource allocation, organization, staffing, monitoring, problem-solving, and structure to influence employees and create stability and predictability in the organization 4. primarily concerned with performance Leaders 1. person in a group given the responsibility of directing and motivating behavior toward group goals 2. value "flexibility, innovation,and adaptation" 3. depend on developing visions, strategies, communication, motivation, and inspiration to achieve organizational change and development 4. primarily concerned with motivating subordinates and supporting subordinates with favorable work conditions Note 1. Leadership is often considered one of the necessary behaviors of a Manager, but not all Managers are effective Leaders 2. Legitimate or formal power: managers have it, but leaders may not 3. Transactional Leadership: captures Managerial aspects 4. Transformational Leadership: captures Leader aspects |
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Term
| Hersey & Blanchard's Situational Leadership Theory |
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Definition
| Leadership style 1.Should be chosen based on a combination of employees' knowledge and skill, and their willingness and confidence 2. Leadership model assumes the leader task or relationship orientation should depend on how mature employees are in both their job skills and in their emotional readiness Employee psychological maturity 1. Self-confidence and self-respect: confidence and willingness to undertake assignments Employee job maturity 1. Level of job-related knowledge, skills, and abilities Levels of maturity 1. High employee maturity = both job and psychologically maturity 2. Immaturity = lacking both job and psychological maturity 3. Moderate maturity: have one (psychological/job maturity), but lack the other Leadership styles 1. Telling 2. Selling 3. Participating 4. Delegating 5. Identified by leader's focus on task and relationships Telling style 1. Employees are less able, unwilling, and lack confidence (low maturity situation) 2. Leader focus is high task orientation, low relationship orientation style; characterized by explicit task directions, close supervision Selling style 1. Employees less able, but willing and confident (moderate maturity) 2. Leader focus is high task orientation, high relationship orientation style; characterized by task directions presented in persuasive, supportive manner Participating style 1. Employees able, but not confident or willing (moderate maturity) 2. Leader focus is low task orientation, high relationship orientation style; characterized by shared ideas and responsibilities b/w leader and employees Delegating style 1. Followers are able, willing, confident (high maturity) 2. Leader focus is low task orientation, low relationship orientation style; characterized by minimalist leadership style, with allowing employees to take responsibility for task completion and decisions |
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Term
| Transformational Leadership Theory |
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Definition
| Transformational leaders 1. Distinguishing feature: inspire followers for noble pursuits. 2. Utilize individualized attention, intellectual stimulation, charisma, and inspiration to broaden and elevate subordinates Transformational leaders use four major strategies 1. Idealized influence: The leaders' actions characterized by sense of ethics, conviction, commitment, purpose, and decisiveness in the face of difficult issues 2. Inspirational motivation: The leaders' actions characterized by an appealing vision, high standards, optimism, enthusiasm, encouragement, and injecting meaning into follower actions 3. Intellectual stimulation: The leaders question the status quo (especially regarding assumptions, beliefs, and values), stimulate change, and encourage innovation and communication 3. Individualized consideration: The leaders attend to each follower by listening actively, and attending to individuals' needs, dreams, and abilities, or mentoring, coaching, and teaching Avolio and Bass' full-range leadership model 1. Transformational Leadership most effective form of leadership 2. Transactional leadership, in which the leader distributes rewards to followers as they behave in ways that assist in attaining work-related goals shown less effective 3. Laissez-faire leadership: complete lack of leadership, least-effective style Transformational Leadership most effective in 1. Unstable environments, organic organizational structures, entrepreneurial cultures |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Frederick Fiedler Leadership 1. Function of person and situation 2. Determined by the leader's self-described relationship to the person in the organization who is his/her least favorite, or least preferred co-worker (LPC) Leadership styles 1. Relationship-oriented leaders: Rate LPC highly; concerned with successful relations between themselves and their followers, and among their followers 2. Task-oriented leaders: Rate LPC low; focused on objectives and task completion Variables leading to effective leadership: interaction between leader's style and situational variables 1. Presence or absence of legitimate position power, state of inter- and intra-personal relations within organization, and task complexity Task complexity 1. Task structure elements such as clear/unclear feedback, few versus many potential employable tactics, and few versus many potential outcomes Complex tasks 1. Offer vague feedback, many possible tactics, and many possible outcomes Simple tasks 1. Offer clear feedback, one or two tactics, and only one or two outcomes Ideal situation for leadership 1. Task is simple; leader has substantial legitimate power, worker-worker and worker-leader relationships positive 2. Worst situation: Task is complex, the leader has little legitimate power, worker-worker and worker-leader relationships are poor LPC task-oriented leaders 1. Effective when situation is at its worst or best; chaotic circumstances respond best to a more autocratic style; simple and cordial circumstances involve the task-oriented leader keeping workers focused and undistracted by excessive relationship activity High LPC 1. Effective when circumstances are neither ideal nor horrible; involves leader soothing worker discontent with leadership and allowing workers to take initiative to complete tasks well and on time |
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Term
| Group Decision-Making: Group Polarization |
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Definition
| Impaired Decision-Making: Polarization 1. Tendency to make more extreme decisions while in a group, following discussion, than if alone 2. Originally referred to as "risky-shift" Polarization direction 1. Predicted by the location of the critical mass of arguments, poling to one side or the other Informational explanation/influence 1. Decisions move in the direction of the most and best arguments Influence of group size 1. Majority can influence minority due to group size and offering more arguments 2. Minorities, however, can compensate for small group size by providing more frequent contributions Contrasting theory: normative explanation 1. Members evaluate each others' position, and shift occurs toward the mean position 2. Normative explanation can contribute to polarization, but informational influence is more powerful |
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Term
| Normative Model of Leadership – Vroom &Yetton |
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Definition
| 1. Key name: Vroom and Yetton 2. Leadership model focused on decision-making styles and situational variables Five decision-making styles (ranging from autocratic to consultative to group-based) 1. Autocratic I: A1 – leaders decide with available information 2. Autocratic II: A11– leaders obtain information from subordinates but do not involve subordinates in discussing the problem or making the decisions 3. Consultative I: C1– leader asks individual subordinates for their views and then decides 4. Consultative II: C11– leader asks subordinates as a collective group for their views and then makes a decision alone 5. Group II: G11– leaders share the problem with the subordinates as a group, focuses and directs discussion without imposing his/her will, and tries to reach a consensus, with the group making the final decision Vroom and Yetton's questions to assess eight situational variables (answers allow leader to decide how much involvement others should have in the decision) 1. Quality Requirement (QR): How important is the technical quality of the decision? 2. Commitment Requirement (CR): How important is subordinate commitment to the decision? 3. Leader's Information (LI): Do you (the leader) have sufficient information to make a high-quality decision on your own? 4. Problem Structure (ST): Is the problem well structured (e.g., defined, clear, organized, lends itself to solution, time limited, etc.)? 5. Commitment Probability (CP): If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain that your subordinates would be committed to the decision? 6. Goal Congruence (GC): Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in solving the problem? 7. Subordinate Conflict (CO): Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely? 8. Subordinate Information (SI): Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high-quality decision? Optimal leadership and decision-making style 1. Dependent on: structure of the task, time constraints, subordinates' interrelationships, and subordinates' commitment to the decision Examples 1. G2 best: when decision quality is important, when problem is unstructured, and the leader lacks information/skill to make decision alone 2. A1 and A2 should be avoided: when decision acceptance is important and followers are unlikely to accept an autocratic decision |
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Term
| Job Characteristics Model |
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Definition
| Key name: Hackman and Oldham A framework for understanding how positions affect employee motivation, satisfaction, and performance Four parts 1. Job characteristics that motivate To be highly motivated, five core job characteristics must be met: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback: a. Skill variety: capacity for employees to use a wide range of skills b. Task identity: employee's involvement in all aspects of job throughout process c. Task significance: how meaningful worker feels task is to organization d. Autonomy: degree of freedom employee has to schedule tasks and carry them oute. Feedback: direct information about how well the job was completed 2. Effect of motivating characteristics on critical psychological states Psychological states affecting core elements of motivation:a. Meaningfulness, sense of responsibility, knowledge of outcomesb. Meaningfulness: contributed to by skill variety, task identity, task significancec. Sense of responsibility: contributed to by autonomy d. Knowledge of outcomes: contributed to by feedback 3. Individual growth need strength (GNS) a. Individual differences to which workers desire personal growth and development from work b. High GNS: respond more strongly and benefit more from jobs with five core characteristics 4. Motivating potential score (MPS) a. Formula using five core characteristics b. MPS= (skill variety + task identity + task significance/3) * (autonomy)* (feedback) c. Motivation is higher when characteristic amounts are higher d. If any characteristic is missing (score of 0), formula returns to zero |
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Term
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Definition
| An emotional attachment or affective commitment to organization 1. Acceptance of and belief in organization's goals 2. Willingness to help organization achieve goals 3. Perceived cost of leaving 4. Sense of obligation Job Commitment 1. Associated with lower rates of absenteeism and turnover Downside 1. Resistance to changes that could benefit organization 2. Strategies to resistance to change include a. gaining support from individuals with power b. educating and addressing the fears of employees c. getting employees involved d. providing feedback and rewards e. highlighting continuous change once successful to avoid the same resistance in the future. |
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Term
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Definition
| Key names 1. Bibb Latané 2. Maxx Ringelmann Definition 1. Individuals reduce their efforts when performing a task with group members relative to working alone 2. In groups, individual performance may decline when perceived unique contributions are not noticed 3. In larger groups, working on simple tasks, with small rewards, individuals often reduce their efforts 4. Individual motivation declines on group tasks if circumstances (e.g., lack of individual recognition) permit diffusion of responsibility |
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Term
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Definition
| Key name 1. McGregor Theory 1. Holds that workers lack motivation and ambition, are not self-directed, and must be controlled, coerced, and supervised if work is to get done 2. McGregor's theory about worker motivation that is consistent with Taylor's "scientific management" approach, and inconsistent with a human relations approach In addition, McGregor's theory 1. Emphasizes workplace hierarchy 2. Efficient division of labor 3. Span of control 4. Strict supervision |
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Term
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Definition
| Key name: 1. McGregor Key Elements: 1. A theory that holds that workers are intrinsically motivated and self-directed and need little direct supervision 2. A logical theoretical ally of the Human Relations movement, this leadership approach emphasizes the importance of Maslow’s higher level needs 3. Leadership theory that emphasizes worker freedom and autonomy, and how these interact with organizational demands 4. More effective than Theory X |
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Term
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Definition
| Key name: 1. McGregor Combines 1. Seven cultural values blending Japanese and American companies a. commitment to employees b. evaluation c. careers d. control e. decision-making f. responsibility g. concern for people 2. The bests elements of McGregor's Theories X and Y Values 1. Long-term employment 2. Evaluate employees slowly and qualitatively 3. Informal and implicit control 4. Believes employees are committed and loyal 5. Group decision-making, personal responsibility 6. Health and well-being of employee important Assumes 1. That workers are motivated, but still need informal, implicit supervision Emphasizes 1. The reciprocal commitment of workers and organizations to each other 2. Has management style elements of both American (emphasizing individual's workplace responsibility) and Japanese (emphasizing a holistic concern for employees) companies |
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Term
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Definition
| Professional coaching 1. Supports an individual(s) in achieving specific results in a particular area 2. A variety of programs including: life, personal, sport, career, business, and Executive Coaching Executing Coaching 1. Supports executive(s) in developing performance and leadership capabilities 2. Based on a strong partnership between coach, executive(s), and organization 3. Differs from psychotherapy: More action-based, present and goal-oriented and faster in producing results 4. Executive coach challenges, motivates, and keeps the client accountable for his actions Legal and ethical guidelines, coach versus therapist (Sperry, 2004) 1. Confidentiality: Coaching conversations are not privileged 2. Boundaries of competence: Keep mental health practice clearly divide from coaching practice (two business names, two cards, two accounts, etc.) 3. Liability and malpractice: Less important for a coach than for a therapist, as a therapist may be sued under his license, while a coach cannot 4. Informed consent: Coaching differs from psychotherapy; professional is hired as an executive coach and not as a psychotherapist; describe services, fee/payment, credentials and steps to resolve conflicts and problems, should they arise in the coaching partnership 5. Competency and scope of practice: Coach or mental health professional must practice within areas of competency or be subject to ethical and legal sanctions The International Coach Federation (ICF) 1. Sets professional and ethical standards and accredits training programs 2. Provides information about Coaches' Core Competencies and the Credentialing Process |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the social fabric of an organization's social system: "the way we do things around here" 1. Complex pattern of variables: including the languages, values, attitudes, beliefs and customs that characterize an organization 2. Can have a potent influence over behaviors necessary for internal integration and external adaptation, enabling useful behaviors or blocking them" 3. Can influence job performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment 4. Could reflect flexibility and openness to change, or resistance to change 5. Power structure could be more vertical, top-down hierarchical power style; or a horizontal, power-sharing style Ostroff, Kinicki, and Tamkins' three layers of Organizational Culture 1. Observable artifacts: drawing meaning and interpretation from surface level actions (e.g., symbols, language, narratives and practices) 2. Espoused values: beliefs or concepts specifically endorsed by management or the organization 3. Basic assumptions: unobservable, but are at the core of the organization; start as espoused values, but over time become deeply ingrained in the culture Schein's levels of organizational culture Level 1) Observable artifacts Level 2) Values Level 3) Basic underlying assumptions Hofstede's National Culture: impacts organizational culture 1. Individualism (the degree people prefer to act as individuals rather than amember of a group) 2. Power distance (level of acceptance of unequal power differentials) 3. Uncertainty Avoidance (level of ability to tolerate uncertainty) 4. Masculinity-Femininity (the amount of value placed on "masculine" qualities, such as, assertiveness, independence and competitiveness verses "feminine" qualities, such as, friendliness, cooperation, care for the weak) 5. Long-Term vs Short-Term Orientation (future oriencted values, such as, persistence and thrift vs. past/present oriented values, such as, tradition and fulfilling social obligation) Organizational culture communicated through 1. Observation/modeling of long-time members, training programs and direct induction, memos, organizational philosophy/policy statements Schneider's Organizational Culture 1. The population of people within an organization defines its culture 2. Attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) cycle: People with similar personalities and values drawn (attraction) to certain organizations and hired into these organizations (selection); people not fitting into the pattern of shared values eventually leave the organization (attrition). Organization's culture can often be traced directly to organization's founders |
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Term
| Group Decision-Making: Groupthink |
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Definition
| A group or team 1. Shows a preference for consensus over rational decision-making A group feels pressure 1. To conform 2. To ignore external inputs 3. To not consider alternatives Groupthink justifications 1. A sense of moral righteousness,a perception of external threat and incomplete consideration 2. Selective processing, self-censorship of contrary views and information, pressure to agree More likely to develop in groups that 1. Are cohesive 2. Have a strong identity Ways to minimize Groupthink 1. Educatemembers about Groupthink phenomenon and its consequences 2. Encourge doubts, skepticism and criticism in group discussions (e.g., playing "devil's advocate") |
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Term
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Definition
| One of a number of withdrawal behaviors 1. Also includes absenteeism and tardiness 2. It is commonly associated with job dissatisfaction Job dissatisfaction and individual tolerances 1. Often lead employees to "withdraw" and leave their job Costly to an organization 1. 1.5 times loss in worker's salary Good predictors of turnover 1. Application information: previous job, education, specialized training, personal history Correlates with job turnover 1. Length of time on the job, and expressed interest in staying |
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Term
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Definition
| Flextime 1. Although they may have a defined work week (40 hours, if full time) and set workdays, workers can choose their start and stop times on work days 2. Workers may be required to work "core" hours (e.g., 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.), but can arrive before 10 and leave after 3 at times of their choosing, as long as they put in 40 hours (if full time) 3. Control of workday start and stop times, leading to lower levels of stress, more productivity and job satisfaction, less absenteeism, and a healthier work-life balance 4. Meta-analysis: flextime related to higher levels of productivity and less absences, though not found to significantly affect performance ratings by supervisors |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Allow employees to shorten workweek by working more than eight hours a day and fewer than five days a week 2. Working 40 hours per week in longer (10 or 12 hours), but fewer (3 or 4 days) shifts 3. Common in public safety/responder jobs (e.g., health care, law enforcement, military) Benefits 1. Associated with higher levels of satisfaction and higher supervisor ratings of performance 2. Employees allowed to pursue other interests 3. Able to be more involved in home life 4. No significant findings re: absenteeism or productivity |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Fixed 8- or 12-hour work periods, typicallyday-evening-night, or day-night 2. Scheduled work periods, typically 8 hours, morning,evening, and night 3. Day, swing (evening) and graveyard (night) workperiods Research: 1. poor health, decreased performance, and decreased job satisfaction occur when circadian cycle disrupted 2. both night and swing shifts cause problems with sleep loss 3. night shift workers have most health problems 4. swing shift with greatest negative impact on social relationships 5. Rotating shifts have more problems than fixed shifts (sleep disturbance, gastrointestinal problems, anxiety, depression) 6. adverse consequences more pronounced when shifts rotated counterclockwise quickly (day, night, swing) vs. clockwise. 7. older workers more susceptible to problems with changing shift Shift work: 1. particularly common among occupational groups: nurses, blue-collar workers, and public safety workers 2. allows services to function 24/7 |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Psychological reaction to chronic, unpredictable, hard-to-control stressors in the workplace 2. A psychological state characterized by depleted energy reserves, increased dissatisfaction and pessimism, lowered resistance to illness, and higher rates of absenteeism and turnover Major components 1. Emotional exhaustion (feeling emotionally drained by work demands) 2. Depersonalization and cynicism (typified by treating others as objects) 3. Feelings of ineffectiveness or loss of self-efficacy Most susceptible 1. Young employees overwhelmed by new job demands 2. Women 3. Individuals in helping professions 4. Unmarried individuals 5. Individuals in chronically demanding jobs 6. Those scoring low on measures of job and life satisfaction Contributing job stressors 1. Physical and task related: uncontrollable noise, work pace, workload, and hours worked. 2. Psychological: lack of control and predictability 3. Employees who experience low autonomy 4. Interpersonal conflict 5. Negative interactions with coworkers, bosses, and clients 6. Role ambiguity, where employees are unsure of role expectations 7. Role conflict, where employees are in multiple roles that are incompatible with one another 8. Role overload, where employees have too many roles simultaneously 9. Work-family conflict, where work and personal roles interfere with one another 10. Emotional labor, where stress results from attempts to manage emotions that contradict the emotions one is expected to display on the job |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. J. Stacey Adams Fairness is 1. A function of the ratio of inputs to outcomes between workers 2. Inputs and outcomes proportional to those of co-workers 3. Inputs: contribution by employee: work accomplished, skill-set they bring 4. Outputs: rewards from organization: pay, benefits, status 5. Critical focus: distributive justice: perceived fairness of outcomes Lack of proportionality 1. Inequity in inputs and outcomes produces tension and discomfort 2. Input/outcome inequity motivates behavior to restoreproportionality: reduce efforts, request higher pay, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| About 1. Redesigning intrinsic factors of a job to increase motivation and satisfaction (e.g., increasing responsibility) Based on humanistic principles 1. Motivated by higher order needs being met, e.g., control in decision-making, having intellectual challenges, and creativity within employment Redesign examples 1. Skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, task feedback = increased motivation, satisfaction, and performance In contrast to 1. Both the scientific management theory (i.e., there is only one effective way to perform a job) and the incentive theory (i.e., workers motivated only by external rewards) |
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| 1. Global Job Satisfaction: overall satisfaction with work 2. Job Facet Satisfaction: satisfaction/dissatisfaction with particular aspects of the job: salary, supervisor, workspace, etc. 3. Satisfaction: Positively affects workplace motivation, performance, lessens withdrawal behaviors: tardiness, sick and non-sick absenteeism, and turnover 4. Defining factor in satisfaction: employee's expectations of compensation, level of challenge, responsibility, pleasantness of work environment, relationship with co-workers, fairness of supervisors 5. Overall job satisfaction: correlated with physical health, psychological health, and longevity 6. Overall dissatisfaction: often results in physical and psychological disorders 7. Pay and satisfaction: related to perception that one is being paid fairly, vs. the actual amount paid 8. Blue collar workers: moderately more concerned about pay than white-collar workers 9. Dissatisfaction: associated with tiring, tedious and repetitive work, where opportunities for the use of skills are limited 10. Employee tenure: related to satisfaction; workers should be matched with jobs suited to skills and individual needs 11. Perception of satisfaction: thought to be cognitively mediated to a degree: ex: positive people tend to feel more positive about job, including problematic aspects of job and setting 12. Person-Organization Fit occurs when there is an alignment between a person’s values and the organization’s values. Age findings 1. Older workers show higher level of satisfaction 2. Younger workers more concerned with intrinsic factors, e.g., job challenge, vs. extrinsic factors, e.g., security, salary |
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| Cohesion increases when group is 1. Successful 2. Faced with external competitive threat 3. Rewards emphasize team vs. individual performance Associated with 1. Commitment to team goals 2. Successful team performance 3. Pride in team 4. Feelings of unity 5. Reduced absenteeism and turnover Improved performance when 1. Leaders are people-oriented 2. Leadership is supportive Can facilitate group decision-making 1. As members feel open and secure in group Too much of this can 1. Increase the likelihood of groupthink in decision-making due to strong norms and conformity pressures |
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| Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory |
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Definition
| An extension of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Two Needs: 1. Lower level (Hygiene factors) 2. Upper level (Motivator Factors) Hygiene 1. Physical, security, social; extrinsic to work: salary, conditions, relationship with co-workers 2. Hygiene factors needed to avoid dissatisfaction; don’t necessarily lead to higher levels of motivation by themselves Motivation factors 1. Esteem and actualized needs; intrinsic to work itself 2. Level of autonomy, responsibility, job content; required to motivate towards striving for higher levels of performance 3. Combining Hygiene and Motivation can result in four outcomes: 1. High Hygiene + High Motivation = Ideal situation in which employees are highly motivated and have few complaints. 2. High Hygiene + Low Motivation = Employees with few complaints, but aren't highly motivated. Work is seen simply as a paycheck. 3. Low Hygiene + High Motivation = Employees are motivated and experience the work as exciting and challenging, but have multiple complaints, and perceive the salaries and work conditions to be sub-par. 4. Low Hygiene + Low Motivation = The work situation, resulting in unmotivated employees with multiple complaints. |
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| Assumes that 1. Workers rationally weigh options before choosing amount of effort to expend 2. Workers will work harder if they rationally conclude their efforts will help them attain their goals 3. Employees can decide on effort to spend when leaders provide clarity, remove obstacles, provide rewards Four leadership styles 1. Supportive-, directive-, participative-, and achievement-oriented leaders Supportive 1. Being considerate and showing concern toward subordinates Directive 1. Involves communicating expectations and giving specific guidelines, deadlines, and procedures Participative 1. Involves seeking out employee input Achievement-oriented 1. Involves setting challenging goals, seeking performance improvements, emphasizing excellence in performance, and showing confidence that subordinates will attain high standards Selecting leadership style 1. Consider situational variables (e.g., task and employee characteristics) |
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| Stress physiological effects 1. Weakens the immune system 2. Slows down digestion 3. Challenges normal cardiovascular health 4. Produces musculoskeletal pain 5. Reduced musculoskeletal function Chronic workplace stress effects 1. Reduced productivity 2. Increased absenteeism 3. Turnover 4. Reduced job satisfaction 5. Work-related accidents 6. Health problems Common workplace stressors 1. Environmental: heat, cold, noise 2. Job-related: role stressors, workload, vigilance, work pace, work schedule, interpersonal demands and conflict, situational constraints, reduced perceived control, emotional labor, downsizing, traumatic job stressors (like violence or harassment) High-stress occupations 1. Police force, fire department, emergency workers, air traffic controllers Interventions 1. Should target the stressor 2. Improve job satisfaction 3. Provide greater social support 4. Improve employee health practices 5. Better employee preparation for job Control 1. Personal sense of control is important 2. Unpredictable/uncontrollable stressors have more negative effects |
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| Work-family conflict occurs with experienced conflict between work roles and roles in personal lives Gender Findings: Women experience greater work stress than men due to numerous roles at work and home Women with children at home have higher levels of stress hormones Women have better coping strategies than men, though Combining balance in work and family roles can have positive effect on self-esteem for women Effects of Conflict: Burnout, work dissatisfaction, depression, marital discord, life dissatisfaction, and decreased productivity Types of Work-Family Conflict: Time-based, Strain-based, and Behavior-based Time-based: roles pressures from two different domains compete for individual's time Strain-based: when strain from one role affects performance of another Behaviorally-based: conflict due to incompatible behaviors between two competing roles |
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| Type A/Type B Personality |
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| Historical perspectives applied to identifying the coronary-prone personality (Type A) 1. Type A characteristics: Hostility, aggression, cynicism, competitiveness, defensiveness, cheating behaviors 2. Type B characteristics: Opposite of Type A, relaxed, easy-going 3. Utility of application of these personality typologies to CHD has been debated Type A/B in I/O field 1. Increased arousal for Type A individuals when deprived of work 2. Learning new tasks equally stressful for Type A and Type B 3. Social support is source of mental stress for Type A 4. Work performance moderated by task variety for Type A 5. External locus of control lowers job satisfaction more for Type A than Type B individuals |
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| Locke Setting specific and difficult goals motivates people and enhances performance 1. Goals direct behavior 2. Acceptance of the goals by the employee is key 3. Employee acceptance of goals is made more likely when they participate in the goal-setting process Feedback 1. Enhances effectiveness of goal –setting Goal-Setting most effective 1. When tasks difficult but less complex High need for achievement 1. Enhances goal-setting Money 1. Has positive effect on job performance Highest performance 1. Goals self-set with no monetary reward Negative performance: 1. Goals self-set with monetary rewards |
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| Vroom Motivation 1. Affected by the associations one has made betweenoutcomes and beliefs about whether one's contributions can affect those outcomes 2. Motivation occurs when effort, performance, and motivation are linked together Key elements to motivation 1. Valence (value): "Are the possible outcomes of any value to me?" 2. Instrumentality (belief that efforts will matter): "If I perform well, will outcomes actually be delivered to me?" 3. Expectancy: used to determine whether increased effort will result in successful performance/expect outcomes: "Am I capable of performing in such a way that I can obtain the outcomes?" Outcomes 1. When instrumentality decreases so does performance 2. Useful in predicting job satisfaction, occupational choice, and job effort |
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| 1. Researched by David McClelland 2. Needs, considered to be "acquired," in that socialization is viewed as the more influential source, rather than heritability Three factors that motivate managers and workers 1. Need for Achievement (nAch) a. Preference for moderately difficult tasks, moderately difficult levels of risks, strive to reach goals, maintain high level of performance, prefer individual vs. group effort, work to completion, assume responsibility, committed to self-set goals, stay at jobs longer b. Gain satisfaction from task completion c. Seek recognition from others d. nAch tends to be highly correlated with job success 2. Need for Power a. Desire for control, influence, and responsibility for others and resources, preoccupied with status, look for promotions/upward mobility, can use power for greater good of group b. Common goal of people: complete agreement and compliance from those around them 3. Need for Affiliation a. Emphasizes establishment and maintenance of relationships, sensitive to criticism, relationship builders, conflict-avoidant, enjoy being an integral part of larger group, good team player, desire approval from others, and personal success tied to success of group b. Higher levels of need for affiliation associated with entrepreneurial success |
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| Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs |
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| 1. Internal mechanical theory 2. Purports that automatic drives motivate employees 3. Five basic need sets that express themselves as internal motivators over one's lifespan 4. Humans naturally seek the highest possible expression of their humanness 5. Contributions of Maslow's theory reflected in McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y 6. Contrasts with Reinforcement Theory: External Mechanical Theory 7. Little empirical support for predicting work behavior Maslow's steps to self-actualization 1. Physiological needs (e.g., breathing, air, water, food, sleep) 2. Safety (security of body, employment, resources, family, health, property) 3. Love/belongingness (friendship, family again, sexual intimacy) 4. Status/esteem (self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others) 5. Self-actualization (morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts) Needs are hierarchical 1. One set must be met before moving on to the next set 2. Instability of having needs met at a lower level will require a return of focus to that level (lower level needs take precedent over higher-order needs) |
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| Engineering solutions that take human users into consideration Fitting the work environment to the worker Ergonomics, biomechanics, usability, and human-technology interactions considered Underlying assumption:increasing compatibility b/w worker and work environment leads to safer workplace, higher productivity, and increased satisfaction Accounting for individual physical and cognitive abilities when: 1. Structuring tasks 2. Designing equipment 3. Writing instructions 4. Developing training systems |
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| Consultant:facilitates ability for managers/employees/groups to achieve group goals Process Consultation:a "helping" relationship Consultant works with, not for, the client Consultant addresses: communication, decision-making, interpersonal relations, task performance Consultant doesn't give expert advice, or solve problem, instead assists client with solving their problem Major Assumption of Process Consultation : behavior must change before attitudes can change Focus: distinguishing and/or changing disruptive behaviors that negatively impact normal social processes Consultant: observes, gives feedback on alternate strategies Client: learns to own their own problems, gains necessary skills to problem-solve, gain expertise in diagnosing organizational/group problems |
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| Situations involving uncertainty and possible risk, people prefer avoiding losses to obtaining gains Loss aversion: considered "irrational" influence on decision-making and behavior as it depends on perception more than reality Two corollaries of Loss Aversion: Risk Aversion and Risk Seeking Risk Aversion: less likely to take risks to obtain gains Risk Seeking: more likely to seek risks to avoid losses Ownership: it is harder to part with, or imagine parting with, something you have than to imagine gaining something you don't have Sunk costs: the more one invests in something the more unreasonable it seems to abandon it |
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| 1. A type of group task in which one solution to a particular problem is selected from a pool of options. 2. Its counterpart is conjunctive task, in which the group combines the talents of its members to solve a problem. In conjunctive tasks, the results depend on the performance of the least talented group member. Characteristics: 1. Often cannot be divided into smaller components; requires just one solution be chosen, rather than the merging of elements from multiple solution options. 2. Creates high-quality results as opposed to a high quantity of results. 3. The best performer can bring up the whole group. 4. Success requires that at least one group member has the expertise required to solve the problem at hand. |
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