Development

Systematic changes & continuities in an organism that occur between conception and death.

Maturation

Growth patterns that occur over time; typically refers to growth and development as a function of biology.

Socialization

Process by which individuals acquire beliefs, values, and behaviors deemed appropriate by their cultures.

Personality

Development of internal aspects of  self.

Thinking in Premodern Times

• Children and adolescents were not regarded as a special group with sensitive periods.
• No real concept of a distinct period of development.
• 17th and 18th century brought different philosophies about children's nature and development.

Important Philosophers

• Hobbes: original sin; children are born with sin and need to be punished, taught, and corrected.
• Locke: children need to be molded; tabula rasa: development is a function of experience.
• Rousseau: children need to develop freely; development is a function of a child's own activity directed by internal program.

Scientific Theories

A set of concepts and explanations for structures, processes, and mechanisms that are presumed to exist but may not be directly observable.

Scientific Method

A system of obtaining information that enables one to make reliable predictions about future events based on empirical evidence, comprised of several steps.

Validity

Extent to which an instrument measures what it claims to measure.

Reliability

Extent to which an instrument yields consistent results over time and across observers.

Observational Method

Systematic observation and coding of behavior in natural setting; useful for generation hypotheses for experimental designs.

Correlation Method

Quantifies degrees of relationship between two variables; used for description and prediction; no causal relation can be determined.

Quasi Experimental Designs

Same as experimental but no random assignment of subjects to different treatment conditions.

Operant Conditioning Theories

• Focus on consequences of behavior.
• Try to determined which variables are reinforcers and punishers.
• Study which type of environments and conditions are most influential as reinforcers and punishers.
• View development as stemming from environmental factors.

Cognitive Theories

• Focus on cognition, that is thinking, and other mental processes that are presumed to underly behavior.
• Emphasis on process and mechanisms responsible for producting particular behavior.

Dynamic Systems Theory

Emphasize the dynamic and complex interplay of multiple levels; cellular, neural, interpersonal, relationships.

Probabilistic Epigenesis

Emegernce of behavioral outcomes is the result of co-actions of nature and nurture and the relative timing of particular variables and contexts is critical.

Gottlieb's Developmental Systems Theory

• Nature and nurture coaction is emphasized
• Interactions between and across levels of development and analysis is a central tenet.
• Quantitative and qualitative changes occur in development.

Psychosexual Stages

• Oral (early infancy)
• Anal (toddler years)
• Phallic (early childhood years)
• Latency (preteen years)
• Genitals (teen and onward)

Psychodynamic Approach

Id: impulses motivated to avoid pain and seek pleasure.

Superego: function triggering an individuals conscious to feel guilty when social norms have been violated.

Ego: rational and conscious part of our personality always attempting to reconcile Id and Superego.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

• Effects of social interaction shaping personality.
• Ego Identity: who we are as individuals in terms of self concept and self image.
• Epigenetic Principle: biological concept that all organism are built with a plan that at least sets the stage for development throughout the lifespan.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

• Trust v. Mistrust: first year of life.
• Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt: 1-3 years of life.
• Initiative v. Guilt: 3-6 years of life.
• Industry v. Inferiority: 6-12 years of life.
• Ego Identity v. Diffusion: 12-18 years of life.
• Intimacy v. Isolation: 18-40 years of life.
• Generativity v. Self Absorption: 40-65 years of life.
• Integrity v. Despair: 65- to death.

Assimilation

Consist of interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures called schemas, without changing them significantly.

Accomodation

Means changing existing schemes to integrate new experiences; most learning situations involve an interaction between both processes.

Physical Domain

Aspects of development that involve changes in physical shape and size, as well as changes in brain structure, sensory capabilities, and motor skills.

Cognitive Domain

Aspects of development that involve the acquisition of skills in perceiving, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving, as well as intricate development and use of language socialization

Enculturation

Learning about culture by observing and absorbing rather than being taught.

Schemas

Piaget’s term for mental structures that process information, perceptions, and experiences; the schemes of individuals change as they grow.

Confounding

The problem of not being sure whether any obtained difference or trends between cohorts are due to developmental factors or to historical factors associated with different cohort groups.