Psychology

Structuralism

Functionalism

Introspection

Adaptive

contributed to our ancestors’ survival

Behaviour

something an organism does that we can observe and record (blinking, smiling, crying)

Behaviourism

Humanistic Psychology

Cognitive Neuroscience

Nature-Nurture Issue

Natural Selection

Levels of Analysis

Biopsychosocial Approach

Basic Research

Applied Research

Counselling Psychology

Clinical Psychology

Psychiatry

Positive Psychology

Community Psychology

Testing Effect

SQ3R

Hindsight Bias

Overconfidence

Perceiving Order in Random Events

Critical Thinking

Culture

Informed Consent

Debriefing

Theory

Hypothesis

Replication

The Scientific Method

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in he hope of revealing universal principles.

observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes and behaviours of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Population

Random Sample

Correlation

Correlation Coefficient

Scatterplot

Experiment

Experiment

Experimental Group

Control Group

Random Assignment

Double-Blind Procedure

Placebo Effect

Independent Variable

Confounding Variable

Dependent Variable

Mode

Mean

Median

Range

Standard Deviation

Normal Curve

Statistical Significance

Biological Perspective

concerned with the links between biology and behaviour. Includes psychologists working in neuroscience, behaviour genetics, and evolutionary psychology. These researchers call themselves behavioural neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behaviour geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Dendrites

a neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.  The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.  When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Endorphins

“morphine within” – natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Nervous System

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural ‘cables’ connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

Sensory Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.  Also called the skeletal nervous system.

Autonomic Nervous System

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs such as the heart).  Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. 

Reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

Endocrine System

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues.

Adrenal Glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pituitary Gland

the endocrine system’s most influential gland.  Under the influence of the hypothalamus the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Lesion

tissue destruction.  A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface.  These waves are measured by electrodes places on the scalp.

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue.  *shows brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.  *shows brain function.

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Reticular Formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerebellum

the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

Limbic System

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygadala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Cerebral Cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing centre.

Glial Cells (Glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking.

Frontal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

Parietal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Temporal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Sensory Cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Association Areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Plasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

Corpus Callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Split Brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive Neuroscience

the inter-disciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Dual Processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

Selective Attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Inattentional Blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change Blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment.

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behaviour.

Instinct

a complex behaviour that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

Drive-Reduction Theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

Incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behaviour.

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

Glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues.  When its level is low, we feel hunger.

Set Point

the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

Basal Metabolic Rate

the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

Teratogens

(literally, “monster maker”) agents, such as chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking.  In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions.

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.  As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behaviour, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

Object Permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

Preoperational Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Theory of Mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental stages – about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviours these might predict.

Concrete Operational Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

Autism

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding others’ states of mind.

Formal Operational Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Stranger Anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Critical Period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. 

Basic Trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

Self-Concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I”?

Circadian Rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM Sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Alpha Waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Sleep

periodic, natural, easily reversible loss of consciousness – as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anaesthesia, or hibernation.

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Delta Waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.  The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Sleep Apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

Night Terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

Dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s minds.  Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

Manifest Content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).

Latent Content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).

Behaviour Genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behaviour.

Environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid – a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.

Identical Twins

twins who develop from a single (monozygotic) fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

Fraternal Twins

twins who develop from separate (dizygotic) fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

Temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Molecular Genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

Heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes.  The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

Epigenetics

the study of influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behaviour and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Natural Selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

Gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Primary Sex Characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

Menarche

the first menstrual period.

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

Social Identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

Intimacy

in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

Emerging Adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.

Erikson's Stage for Infancy

(age up to one year)

Erikson's Stage for Toddlerhood

(ages 1-3 years)

Erikson's stage for Preschoolers

(ages 3-6 years)

Erikson's stage for Adolescence

(ages 13 and into the 20s)

Erikson's stage for Young Adulthood

(ages 20s to early 40s)

Erikson's stage for Middle Adulthood

(Ages 40s to 60s)

Erikson's stage for Late Adulthood

(ages late 60s and up)

Sexual Response Cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson – excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Refractory Period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

Sexual Disorder

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.

Estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In non-human female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Sexual Orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation).