CSET in Spanish for Single Subject Credential

• $99.00 per subtest/Passing Score - 220
• CBT (Computer Based Test only)
• Subtest 1 - 40 multiple choice questions/3 constructed response questions Test 145
• Subtest 11 - 40 multiple choice questions/1 constructed response Test 146
• Subtest 111 - 30 multiple choice questions/6 constructed responses Test 147

CSET Spanish test descriptions Time: 1 hour 45 minutes

Subtest 1 - General Linguistics

15 multiple choice questions

One short focused constructed response

Subtest 1 - Linguistics of the Target Language

25 multiple choice questions

Two (2) short focused constructed response

Subtest 11 - Literary and Cultural Texts and Traditions Time: 1 hour 30 minutes

20 multiple choice questions

Cultural Analysis and Comparisons

20 multiple choice questions

One (1) extended constructed response

Total 40 m/c questions

Subtest 111 - Time: 2 hours 15 minutes

1 -Language and Communication - Oral Expression

NO Multiple Choice questions

Two (2) short focused responses

2 - Language and Communication/Listening Comprehension

15 multiple choice questions

1(One) short focused constructed response

3 - Language and Communication/Reading Comprehension

15 Multiple choice questions

One (1) short focused response

4 - Language and Communication - Written Expressions

No Multiple Choice Questions

1 - Short Focused Constructed Response

1 - Extended constructed Response

ALL SUBTESTS ALLOW YOU TO USE DIACRITICAL MARKS

SEE CHARACTER SELECTOR TUTORIAL

www.ctcexams.nesinc.com

Subtest 111 - record spoken responses

See Interactive CBT tutorial on website

DATES OF EXAMINATIONS:

Check availability/locations

http://www.pearsonvue.com/es/sa/

There are test centers in Van Nuys, Burbank, Reseda, and Westlake

CSET exams are criterion referenced which means they are designed to measure an examinee's knowledge and skills in relation to an established standard rather than in relation to the performance of other examinees.  

Review California Common Core State Standards for K-12 Language learning and CTC program standards/California Curriculum Frameworks

Suggestion: That you sign up for one test at a time to help you focus on each area being tested

Study Skills

Multiple Choice Questions:  four possible responses (A,B,C,D)

Look for the best answer; try to eliminate two of the presented answers. 

Critical thinking skills, analytical skills, compare/contrast/judge/evaluate

Constructed response questions: you will be presented with an introductory paragraph, situation, quotation, excerpt, drawing, map, or other resource followed by a specific assignment relating to that prior material.  You may be asked to discuss, describe, explain, interpret, correct, transform or evaluate the material presented or compare it with another resource presented at the same time.

SCORING: The multiple choice questions are scored electronically and there is no penalty for guessing

The constructed response questions are scored by two qualified California educators using Focused Holistic Scoring.  The scorers judge the overall effectiveness of each response while focusing on a set of performance characteristics that have been identified as important.  Each response is assigned a score based on an approved scoring scale.

View score scales for exam in the test guide for your exam at: www.ctcexams.nesinc.com

Passing scores are established after the first test administration of each CSET exam.

On the day of the test:

• Make sure to arrive to the test at least 15 minutes before the exam begins
• Dress comfortably - layer clothing
• Bring government issued identification and other materials described on "Day of the Test" at website
• Eating and drinking not permitted in testing room and any break time you take will be deducted from your testing time
• FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS CAREFULLY
• The test sessions is designed to give you sufficient time for completion of the subtest(s) for which you registered.  You will not be able to address the tests with recorded components (CSET Spanish has listening as well as speaking components) and those parts are administered at the beginning of the test session.
• Be aware of the time - self-pace
• If you cannot answer a questions, skip it and move on. Return to it later if you have sufficient time.
• Prepare to stay for the entire test session
• Read all directions and questions carefully
• Read all responses for multiple choice questions carefully - look for THE BEST ANSWER - DO NOT SKIM QUESTIONS OR ANSWERS
• Read all parts of the constructed response questions so that you make sure that you include any sub-questions (summarize, evaluate, compare/contrast)
• Since there is no penalty for guessing, make sure that you answer ALL questions since a blank answer and a wrong answer are scored the same
• If you have time at the end of the test, review the questions that you either left out or had difficulty with

Test Results Information

For each subtest taken, your test results report includes your passing status and if you did not pass, your total subtest score.  Additionally, there will be summary information about which CSET subtests you have passed to date.  On the reverse side of the test results report there will be diagnostic information for each subtest taken to give you an idea of your strengths and weaknesses in each section.  

Important: CSET scores must be used toward a California credential within ten years of the test date.  

Performance on different sections of subtests cannot be combined across administrations.

The raw score earned on each section gets converted to a scale of 100 to 300, with 220 as the passing score.

Once you pass a subtest, you do not have to take that subtest again as long as you use the score toward certification with ten years of the test date.

IMPORTANT: To retake or register for CSETs, please go to www.ctcexams.nesinc.com.

You must wait 45 days to retake a subtest.

ALL scores will be sent to Commission on Teacher Credentialing as well as any institution that you indicated when you register for the CSET (e.g., CAL State Northridge).  The examinee will receive a full test results report - your passing status, scales scores(if not passed) and the diagnostic feedback.  

Multiple choice answers are machine scored.

Constructed responses are graded as follows:

• The extent to which the response addresses the assignment's charge in relation to relevant CSET subject matter requirements or content specifications
• Subject Matter Knowledge: the application of accurate subject matter knowledge as described in the relevant CSET subject matter requirements or relevant CSET content specifications.
• Support - the appropriateness and quality of the supporting evidence in relation to relevant CSET subject matter requirements or relevant CSET content specifications
• Additionally, some constructed responses get graded according to a fourth performance characteristic which is Depth and Breadth of Understanding: the degree to which the response demonstrates understanding of the relevant CSET subject matter requirements. 

COMPUTER BASED TESTING TUTORIALS

• These tutorials give you a sense of what you will see when you begin your test at a Pearson Professional Center
• CBT Tutorials - allow you to preview the on screen tutorial that you will see before you begin your test.  This tutorial includes information about how to navigate through a test, how to select your answers, and  how to end the test.
• CBT Tutorial - https://www.testing.nesinc.com/cbttutorial/tutorial/tutorial_page_1.html
• Interactive CBT Tutorial - allows you to practice using the CBT functions that will be available during your test, including navigating through a test, selecting your answers, and using accessibility features.
• Interactive CBT Tutorial - //www.ctcexams.nesinc.com/SampleTest.aspx?action=VueSampleTest&seriesCode=OGDEN
• Screen Color and Font Adjustment - the Normal Color Scheme menu allows you to select a different font color and background color combination
• The Small Font menu allows you to increase the font size in predefined percentages.  
• Pearson Professional Centers Tour - you may take a virtual tour of a Pearson test center.  For more information go to Pearson Professional Centers Tour - http://www.pearsonvue.com/ppc/
• ANSWER CHOICE STRATEGIES:
• Best way to pick the BEST answers is to eliminate wrong answers until the only one left is the correct one
• The test writers usually put more than one reasonable answer choice for each question
• Make sure to read ALL of the choices carefully
• If you see two answer choices that are direct opposites or parallels, usually one of them is the correct answer
• An answer choice that doesn't match the basic construction of the answer choices is more likely to be incorrect
• Eliminate answer choices as soon as you realize they are wrong, but don't forget to consider all possibilities
• If, for some reason, you wind up eliminating ALL of the answer choices, start over and read every answer carefully
• Don't be distracted by an answer choice that is FACTUALLY TRUE, but doesn't answer the question
• Stay focused on what the question is and don't go astray with answers that are true but don't answer the question
• Avoid answers that put forth extreme actions (e.g., this practice should be discontinued completely)
• As you read the answers and you come upon one that seems to answer the question well, make that your "benchmark" answer, BUT be sure to read the other answers to confirm that
• Try to predict the answer before you begin looking at the four answers (if possible)
• If you get stumped by a question, don't waste time.  Put a dot to the left of the number of the question and come back to it at a later time. When feasible, come back and guess
• Watch out for careless mistakes and double check your work to ensure that you have bubbled in the  answer for the corresponding question
• Try to pace yourself and don't panic - test writers do include distracting material and wrong answers that seem right at first glance
• Confidence comes from preparing yourself thoroughly and practicing!

Subtest 1: General Linguistics

Analyze mechanisms by which language change occurs

PHONETICS:  Production of speech sounds by humans without prior language knowledge

PHONOLOGICAL: Patterns of sounds in different positions in words

MORPHOLOGY: The study of words, their formation, stems, roots, prefixes, suffixes

SYNTAX: The set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences, word order

LEXICAL: Relating to words or vocabulary of a language

SEMANTICS: Branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning 

• Demonstrate an understanding of distinctions between different types and varieties of speech acts (e.g., direct vs. indirect and commands, questions, assertions, exclamations)
• Demonstrate an understanding of the functions of speech acts (e.g., to inform, to amuse, to control, to persuade)
• The concepts of reference (mention or alluding to something), sense(what something expresses or the thought that it expresses), force (strength or energy), tone(the general attitude or character of what is being said), and contextualized meaning to the analysis of speech acts.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the distinction between performative (an action that conveys intent (a promise, apology vow, request, forbiddance) and constative utterances (statements) vs. speech that describes facts or provides information.

Demonstrate an understanding of theories of language acquisition and learning

• Analyze potential differences between learning first and second languages
• Identify the developmental stages through which language learners acquire first and second languages
• Demonstrate an understanding of the cognitive (conscious intellectual activity i.e., thinking, reasoning, or remembering), affective (relating to moods, feelings, attitudes), and social factors that affect second-language acquisition and learning
• As it relates to the prior bullet point - the concept of critical period, family and peer attitudes, linguistic interference
• Demonstrate an understanding of how theories of language acquisition can be applied to facilitate language instruction and learning
• Demonstrate an understanding of the creativity and recursive (relating to or involving the repeated application of a rule, definition or procedure to successful results)
• Analyze mechanisms by which language changes occur
• umlaut- two dots over a vowel (prevalent in German and also in Spanish in the gue series) that changes the quality of the vowel
• borrowing - lexical borrowing - the process in which the word in one language is adapted for use in another language - loan word or borrowed word (English words with foreign origins (e.g., teepee, wigwam, ballet, opera)
• Euphemisms - an indirect word or expression substituted for one considered too harsh or blunt - it can be a reference to something embarrassing or unpleasant
• Folk etymologies - usually described as a false analogy, altering form or meaning of an unfamiliar term.  Sometimes relates to compound words or loan words that are archaic or obsolete (hamburger)
• Metaphors --- figures of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action which is not literal - symbolic of something else (All the world's a stage)
• Taboos -an implicit prohibition or something (against an utterance or behavior) based on a cultural sense that is excessively repulsive or too sacred for ordinary people
• Pragmatics - the branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used - i.e., taking turns in conversation, text organization, presupposition, it studies how people understand and produce a speech act.
• Deixis - part of pragmatics that directly involved the relationship between the structure of language and the context in which it is used
• Discourse Analysis - analysis of language "beyond the sentence" - it studies larger chunks of language as they flow together.  The larger discourse context to help understand how it affects the meaning of a sentence.
• Theory of Speech Acts - theory of meaning that holds that the meaning of linguistic expressions can be explained in terms of rules governing use in performing various speech acts (admonishing, asserting, commanding, questioning, requesting, warning)

STUDY SKILLS ADVICE

• Read Leitner Study Skills paper
• Use official test outline documented online to see a list of all concepts you need to cover before exam
• Brush up on vocabulary that is unknown to you
• Better to study in small chunks and learn the material well
• Avoid multitasking and focus - study in a quiet place
• Don't study before bedtime - be rested and alert
• Small study groups can be beneficial with serious others
• Carry around flashcards to help consolidate information
• Choose a study modality that fits your personal learning style - know what works best for you
• If you use flashcards, underline key words or highlight them/color code different categories
• When taking practice tests separate the questions you got wrong, those that you had to guess on (even if they were right) and those that were difficult
• Try to identify why you got those questions wrong - did you not understand the vocabulary or concepts?
• Don't memorize the questions from practice exams
• Study the concepts and understand them fully
• Best to take first practice exam with no time constraints (untimed) and open book
• Next practice exam set a timer and pace yourself (still open book)
• Third practice test should be closed book and timed as if it were a real exam

MORE STUDY SKILLS

• Analyze how much time you can spend on each question based on the number of questions and how much time is available to you (e.g., 60 multiple choice questions in 30 minutes means you have a hard limit of 30 seconds to answer - give yourself 25 seconds and see how you do)
• Don't rush through easier questions. Try to work efficiently and make sure that you read EVERYTHING
• Try to eliminate two choices up front
• If you can't pinpoint which of the remaining two answers are correct, GUESS, but try to use your knowledge to make an educated guess
• There is no penalty for guessing so don't leave anything blank
• If you find that you are ahead of schedule, slow down
• You want to have time to review your answers if possible
• Keep an efficient but careful pace
• Have a plan for guessing an answer
• Try to answer a question based on your knowledge and basic reasoning skills
• Focus on the key words in the question and try to remember any information about the topics
• If you cannot access the knowledge needed to answer the questions, then you know it is time to guess
• Start guessing as soon as you decide that you cannot answer the question
• With four choices as potential answers, you have a 25% chance of guessing correctly.
• Don't eliminate any answer unless you are willing to bet $5 that it is wrong
• Hold each answer's choice elimination decision to a higher standard
• Be methodical when guessing and don't rely on your impression
• Use your brain to eliminate an answer and work with the knowledge that you have
• Read the questions carefully and identify the terms
• Look for context clues to help you decipher the meaning of unfamiliar words
• Pay attention to prefixes or suffixes to help dissect a word in the question or answer
• Pay attention to hedge words like: likely, may, can, sometimes, often, almost, mostly, usually, generally, rarely, and sometimes. Be on guard for words like exactly and always - definitive words.
• Be aware of switchback words which alert you to shifts in thoughts, including: but, although, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, even though, while, in spite of, despite, regardless of. These words can change the direction of the question or the answer choices.
• Don't read too much into the questions, use common sense.

DESCRIBE THE STUDY OF PHONOLOGY AND RELATED TERMS INCLUDING PHONEMES AND ALLOPHONES

• Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of a language
• Phonemes are the meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language, adding the sound /r/ to the word bat creates a word with a new and totally distinct meaning: brat
• Changing /b/ to /r/ in the word bat creates a word with a new and totally distinct meaning: rat
• Therefore, /b/ and /r/ are phonemes in English.  Different languages have different sets of phonemes
• Allophones are the physical sounds used to produce speech.  One phoneme may have several allophones.
• For example, in Spanish, the phoneme /v/ may be pronounced /v/ or it may also be pronounced /b/
• Pronouncing /v/ as /b/ does not create a word with anew and totally distinct meaning: bienvenidos may be pronounced bienbenidos and still carry the same meaning

DEFINE SEGMENTALS, SUPRASEGMENTALS, AND MINIMAL PAIRS

• Segmentals are the phonemes used to create utterances in a language
• Suprasegmentals are the non-phonemic factors used in speaking a language
• Stress, intonation, and word juncture are examples of suprasegmentals
• Suprasegmentals can be functional (creating different meaning) or non-functional (not creating different meaning)
• For example, in Spanish, syllabic stress can be a functional suprasegmental as in Hablo = I talk versus Habló = he talked.
• The syllabic stress changes the meaning of the word
• Minimal pairs and sets are pairs or groups of words that vary by only one phoneme
• Bat and rat are a minimal pair in English
• bat, cat, hat, mat, gnat, pat, rat, sat, tat, and vat are a minimal set.
• Since phonemes differ from language to language, minimal pairs vary as well
• For example, caro and carro are a minimal pair in Spanish but would not be in English

DESCRIBE SYLLABLES, CLUSTERS, AND CO-ARTICULATION

• Syllables must contain a vowel or a vowel-like sound
• They may have a consonant or a consonant cluster before and/or after the vowel
• Syllable structure can be denoted with C for a consonant and V for a vowel
• For example, the syllable at is VC, the syllable bat is CVC, the syllable brat is CCVC, and the syllable bank is CVCC.
• Different languages have different allowable consonant clusters
• Co-articulation is when one sound is made at almost the same time as a second sound because of our speed of speech
• This can occur as assimilation(for example: say "I can go" quickly
• The /n/ at the end of can and the /g/ at the beginning of go are pronounced almost together as the sound of /ng/
• It can also occur as elision, when one sound is just left out (for example: say "She opened the door" quickly.
• The /d/ at the end of opened is not heard

DESCRIBE THE STUDY OF MORPHOLOGY AND DEFINE MORPHEMES AND AFFIXES

• Morphology is the study of the basic meaning-carrying forms of language, or what words and other meaningful "chunks" of language are and how they are formed. Important concepts are:
• A morpheme is a "minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function"
• A basic word is a morpheme: for example, play
• However, in the forms of playing, player, and played, the units -ing, -er, and -ed are also morphemes - units that carries meaning or grammatical function.
• Play is considered a free morpheme since it can exist and carry meaning on its own
• -ing, -er, and -ed are examples of bound morphemes - they typically must be affixed to a free morpheme
• An affix is a "chunk" or a bound morpheme that is attached to a free morpheme in order to produce a new word
• They can be prefixes (attached to the beginning of a word like disobey/desobedecer)
• Suffixes (attached to the end of a word like talking/hablaré) or
• Infixes (placed in the middle of a word: not typically used in English or in Spanish)

Describe derivational and inflectional morphology

• Derivational morphology is the process by which a new word is created or a word is changed to be another part of speech by adding bound morphemes.
• -er is a derivational suffix, changing the verb play into a noun meaning "a person who plays": player
• In Spanish, -dor is a similar derivational suffix, changing the verb jugar into a noun meaning "a person who plays": jugador
• Derivational prefixes also exist in both languages (e.g., dis- in English and des- in Spanish)
• Inflectional morphology is the process by which a word is modified to indicate grammatical function such as singular or plural, present tense or past tense.
• English has very few inflectional morphemes (-s, -ing, -ed, -en, -er, est, -'s)
• Spanish has a much wider variety of inflectional morphemes
• For example, to mark person in the present tense alone, the inflectional morphemes -o, -as, -a, -amos, -áis, and -an are all employed

DEFINE ROOTS, STEMS, AND ALLOMORPHS IN MORPHOLOGY

• A root is a morpheme without any affixes, either derivational or inflectional
• It has often been referred to as a "base word"
• In the prior example, play is a root.
• A stem is any word that been inflected, minus the inflection
• A stem may contain derivational morphemes
• For example, in the word players, play is the root, player is the stem, and -s is the inflection
• In the word, desobedecimos, obedecer is the root, desobedecer is the stem, and -imos is the inflection
• Allomorphs are a set of morphs that communicate the same inflectional information
• In English, to communicate the idea of "plural", we can employ the morphs -s(cat - cats) and -es (couch- couches), as well as some irregular forms such as no change (fish - fish) and middle vowel change (man - men)
• This group of morphs that pluralize a word are called allomorphs
• In Spanish, the morphs -o (hablar - hablo) -oy (estar - estoy) and -go (tener - tengo) all communicate the inflectional information that the first person (I/yo) is completing the action in the present tense.
• DESCRIBE STRUCTURAL AMBUIGUITY IN LANGUAGE FORMS
• Sometimes two distinct deep structures can be expressed by the same surface structure
• For example, the sentence "Pedro hit the intruder with a baseball bat/Pedro golpeó al intruso con el bate de béisbol could come from the deep structure "Pedro used a baseball bat to hit the intruder/Pedro utilizó un bate para golpear al intruso" or it could come from the deep structure "Pedro hit the intruder who carried a baseball bat/Pedro golpeó al intruso que llevó un bate"
• The surface structure is an example of structural ambiguity - the sentence itself does not tell us which deep structure's meaning was intended
• DESCRIBE THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF LANGUAGE INTO FAMILIES
• Languages are often classified into "families" or organized in a "tree" with "branches" similarly to how we might chart our own family in a family tree
• This is possible because our modern languages developed from a smaller number of older languages
• For example, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish all share a similar linguistic heritage, developing primarily from Latin
• Therefore, they share many features with each other and with their common "parent" language and are considered a branch of a language "family"
• Linguists recognize approximately 30 distinct language families that at least 4,000 of the world's more than 6,000 languages can be categorized as belonging to

DESCRIBE THE STUDY OF SYNTAX AND PROVIDE A DEFINITION FOR GENERATIVE GRAMMAR AND DEEP AND SURFACE STRUCTURE

• Syntax is the study of the structure and order of components within phrases and sentences.
• Traditionally, the term "grammar" has been associated with syntax
• Key concepts in the field of syntax include:
• Generative grammar is the set of rules for a given language from which all well-formed sentences can be generated.
• ONLY well-formed sentences will be generated if these rules are applied
• This set of rules is finite, but can result in an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences
• It is possible for two sentences to look different but still contain the basic syntactic structure
• "I wrote the book/Yo escribí el libro" and "The book was written by me/El libro fue escrito por mí" have different surface structure
• On an underlying level (called deep structure), they are both formed with the same syntactic components - a first person pronoun, a verb, and the noun phrase "the book"
• This same deep structure would be shared by even more sentences with different surface structure (e.g., Did I write the book?/ ¿Yo escribÍ el libro?)

DESCRIBE THE STUDY OF SEMANTICS AND DEFINE SEMANTIC ROLES AND LEXICAL RELATIONS

• Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences
• This is considered distinct from syntax, because an utterance can be syntactically correct but semantically "odd" (e.g., The cake ate the children)
• Some key concepts in the field of semantics include the following:
• Words and phrases can be thought of and classified in terms of the role they play in a sentence.
• Verbs typically play the role of action
• Nouns and noun phrases can be the agent(doing the action), the theme (affected by the action)
• When used with prepositions, the instrument (the means of doing the action), the location, the source, or the destination
• The meanings of words can be thought of in relationship to each other
• Words can be synonyms (start/begin, empezar/comenzar), antonyms (tall/short, alto/bajo), and hyponyms (dog/animal, perro/animal)

DEFINE TRANSFORMATION AND RECURSION IN SYNTAX

• Transformation describes how the individual parts of a deep structure sentence can be arranged and rearranged into different surface structures
• For example, in English, "Juan gave Mary a gift yesterday" can be rearranged with the adverb first: "Yesterday Juan gave Mary a gift"
• Or it can be an interrogative "Did Juan give Mary a gift yesterday?"
• In Spanish, these transformations would be similar, although the interrogative transformation does not require as much: "Juan le dio un regalo a Mary ayer" or
• "Ayer Juan le dio un regalo a Mary" "¿Juan le dio un regalo a Mary ayer?
• Recursion is the ability to be repeated an infinite number of times.
• Generative grammar must be recursive
• For example, a generative grammar rule states that a sentence may have a prepositional phrase describing an object's location (The flowers are on the table/Las flores están en la mesa)
• It may have a prepositional phrase describing the location of the object in the first prepositional phrase (The flowers are on the table in the kitchen/Las flores están en la mesa en la cocina)
• Children's games and songs often take advantage of recursion ("The tree in the hole and the hole in the ground")

DEFINE HOMOPHONES, HOMONYMS, POLYSEMY, AND DESCRIBE THEIR INFLUENCE ON LANGUAGE LEARNING

• Homophones are words with different written forms and different meanings but the same pronunciation
• Some common English homophones are two/to/too and bear/bare
• Because of its letter-sound correspondence, Spanish has fewer homophones than English - e.g, hola/ola
• Homonyms are words with the same written form and same pronunciation but two or more unrelated meanings
• Some common English homonyms are bat (sports equipment, flying mammal) and bank(financial institution, side of a river)
• Most Spanish homonyms involve a form of a verb (e.g., calle: street, subjunctive of verb callar (be quiet)
• Polysemy, in contrast to homonymy is when two or more words have the same form and different but related meanings.
• One English example is bright(more than sufficient amount of light, more than sufficient amount of intelligence)
• One Spanish example is cuello(neck of an individual, collar of a shirt)
• Each language has its own set of homophones, homonyms, and polysemes, and this can cause confusion and difficulty for language learners
• For example, an English speaker learning Spanish may think that he can use banco to refer to both a financial institution and the edge of a river the same as he can use bank in English.
• However, in Spanish banco only refers to a financial institution and orilla is used to refer to the river's edge

DISCUSS THE PROCESS OF LANGUAGE CHANGE, INCLUDING SYNCHRONIC AND DIACHRONIC CHANGE OF LANGUAGE

• Language change has been occurring for as long as human language has existed and will continue to change as long as language is in use
• Language change can occur at any and all levels of language - phonetics, morphology, syntax, and semantics
• Diachronic change is the change in language that happens over time (e.g., how modern English has developed from the Middle English spoken 1,000 years ago.
• Synchronic change is the change in language that happens at the same time but in different locations or among different groups of speakers.
• This is seen in regional accents and word choices (regionalisms)
• An example of synchronic change in Spanish is how the vosotros pronoun is rarely used in Latin America but continues to be used in Spain

LIST AND DESCRIBE VARIOUS MECHANISMS OF LANGUAGE CHANGE

• PHONEMIC SPLITS AND MERGERS: Phonemes can be divided, merged, or switched to create new pronunciations of words.
• In most of the Spanish-speaking world, the phonemes pronounced /s/ and /th/ are no longer distinguishable
• Therefore, the words casa and caza will be pronounced the same.
• However, in other regions, these two phonemes have not merged, and therefore casa is pronounced CAH-sa, while caza is pronounced somewhat like CAH-tha
• Borrowing or loan words: A language can borrow a word from another language when there is no existing word for that concept. E.g., the word jeans is commonly used as a loan word in Spanish-speaking countries.
• Euphemisms, taboos, and metaphors: Words can take on new meanings when used to avoid saying something unpleasant or unacceptable. For example, passed away is commonly used to mean died and neurologically atypical replaces idiot or mentally retarded
• When words are used as a metaphor, they may also eventually gain that new meaning
• Many English and Spanish words come from Latin words that are related in concept but are used metaphorically (spirare = to breathe in Latin. Inspiración/inspiration = to blow into, as in to give creative life to)
• FOLK ETYMOLOGIES: Words can undergo spelling or pronunciation changes when their etymology, or heritage, is misunderstood.
• For example, the English word cockroach is actually a borrowed word from the Spanish cucaracha
• However, the word roach is also used on its own to refer to these disgusting bugs, treating cockroach as if it were a compound word involving the English words cock and roach
• The English word roach actually comes from the Middle English word roche, referring to a specific kind of fish.

DEFINE DISCOUSE ANALYSIS AND ITS USE

• Discourse Analysis is the study of linguistic exchanges between individuals, either written or spoken
• It seeks to go "beyond the sentence" to look at larger chunks of utterances for patterns and meaning
• For example, we can examine how speakers take turns in conversation and how they mark that it is the other speaker's turn or that they are done talking
• (e.g., "Well, ..." "...what do you think?" "Bueno,..." or "...¿verdad?")
• Coherence, the use of words and phrases that help the listener/reader to link ideas and understand how they are meant to relate to each other, is another important part of extended discourse
• (e.g., "First...then...later..." or "Al contrario...de hecho..."
• When you take the speaking and writing sections of the exam, you will be judged on your discourse - how you use language in context, above the sentence level, to clearly communicate your ideas to your listener/reader.
• Discourse analysis also studies speech acts and pragmatics

DESCRIBE DISCOURSE ANALYSIS IN WRITING AND IN SPEECH ACTS

• In extended written texts, there are norms for structure that go beyond the structure of each sentence
• While these norms are not universally learned and applied like syntactic rules, and can be bent and broken more freely, they exist nonetheless
• Your composition teacher may have sought to teach you these norms (e.g., start each paragraph with an introduction sentence and then only include information in that paragraph that is part of the topic you introduced)
• When language is used to perform an action or ask someone else to perform an action, it is called a speech act
• Speech acts can be generally classified as commands (Wash the dishes!/¡Lave los platos!)
• Questions (Who washed the dishes?/¿Quíen lavó los platos?)
• Assertions (The dishes need to be washed/Hay que lavar los platos)
• A speech act can also be considered either direct or indirect
• A direct speech act uses a form for its literal purpose, for example, using a command to give a command as in "Wash the dishes!/¡Lave los platos!"
• An indirect speech act uses a form to accomplish something other than its literal purpose
• Example: in the statement "The dishes need to be washed/Hay que lavar los platos", while the speech act is formed as an assertion, its purpose could be to command that someone wash the dishes - imagine a mother staring at a child, clearing her throat, and then saying "The dishes need to be washed/Hay que lavar los platos"
• In order to analyze and understand speech acts, we engage in many levels of observation and interpretation, using the context, our linguistic and interpersonal knowledge, the force and tone of the utterance, and many other factors

DEFINE PRAGMATICS AND ITS USE IN COMMUNICATION

• Pragmatics is the study of how context contributes to meaning
• Demonstrative pronouns are an excellent example of the ubiquity and importance of pragmatics- the word this can have an infinite number of meanings and is corrected interpreted only in context
• Indirect speech acts, such as the example of the mother making an assertion that is actually a command, are another example of how context (the mother/child relationship, the mother's tone of voice and facial expression, etc.) can and does affect the meaning of language
• Sentences often mean more than they literally say
• A mob boss saying "Nice car you have...it's be a shame if something happened to it", a father saying "You left the door open!" and a guest saying "A drink would be nice" are all simple statements on face value, but are intended by the speaker to communicate something else (a threat to harm the car, a command to shut the door, and a request for a drink)
• Any factor that is a part of the non-linguistic context can influence the meaning of a linguistic utterance
• Pragmatics are employed for a variety of reasons - ease of speech, avoiding taboos, diminishing the way a command or request imposes on another individual, or allowing the speaker or listener to save face
• Different cultures employ different levels and types of pragmatic strategies

DESCRIBE SOCIOLINGUISTICS AND GIVE SOME EXAMPLES OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS

• Sociolinguistics studies the relationships between language and society - how they interact, and how they modify and impact each other
• Language changes and is modified by social features such as geographical location, socioeconomic class, educational level, age group, gender, ethnicity, and contact with or knowledge of other languages
• These elements affect all languages to various degrees depending on the particular social factors, constantly altering different parts of the language such as pronunciation, word choice, and sentence structure
• With Spanish spoken in so many different countries, geographical location is one of the most significant sociolinguistic factors that affect it, and it is very important to pay attention to local nuances

DESCRIBE THE TWO MAJOR CAMPS FOR THEORIES RELATING TO LANGUAGE LEARNING AND GIVE AN OVERVIEW OF THE BEHAVIORIST/ENVIRONMENTALIST VIEW

• Theories of language learning can be roughly divided into two camps
• One camp is of the opinion that language learning occurs the same way any other information or skill is learned
• The other camp holds that language learning is unique from all other types of learning because the human brain is "hardwired" to learn language
• The behaviorist or environmentalist view of language acquisition holds that children develop language the same way that all organisms learn everything
• Their early linguistics responses to the environmental stimuli are reinforced selectively by adults; children will repeat rewarded response, while ignored responses are less likely to persist
• In this view, learning occurs as children behave certain ways and receive reinforcement or punishment as a response to their behavior

DESCRIBE THE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIORIST THEORY REGARDING LANGUAGE LEARNING

• In order to teach a new language, a teacher likely would introduce lessons in the target language and academic content subjects in small, manageable portions following the behaviorist principle of presenting new material in small amounts
• This practice facilitates more precise shaping of new learned behaviors and enables language students to learn more easily
• The educator would demonstrate the target language in spoken and written form in order to provide a model for students to imitate, another behaviorist principle
• The teacher would be sure to reward correct student responses following the behaviorist principle of positive reinforcement, thereby increasing the students' likelihood of repeating these responses
• Behaviorism finds that only outwardly observable and measurable behaviors can be changed and thus disregards internal states, which it cannot observe, measure, or change
• As a result, the teacher would use tests, quizzes, in-class and homework assignments, etc., and score these assessments quantitatively in order to measure correct and incorrect responses
• Increases in the former and decreases in the latter would indicate learning, which behaviorism defines as observable, measurable changes in behavior over time

DISCUSS MODERN COGNITIVIST THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

• McLaughlin is one of the most well-known modern cognitivists
• He holds that language learning occurs through general cognitive processes and his ideas are sometimes called the "Information Processing Model"
• According to McLaughlin's model, some of the general mental skills that we use to learn language are transfer(finding connections with pre-existing knowledge), simplification (attending only to what we understand), generalization (identifying patterns and rules), restructuring (changing where and how information is stored in our brains - like a computer), and automatization (being able to complete tasks without attending to them)
• Modern cognitive theory makes a distinction between declarative knowledge - knowing facts and information, and procedural knowledge - knowing how to do something
• While language learning has historically been treated as gaining declarative knowledge, cognitivists argue that it be more helpful to think of language learning as the gaining of procedural knowledge

DESCRIBE SKINNER'S BEHAVIORIST THEORY EXPLAINING THE PROCESS OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

• B. F. Skinner was a major proponent of the behaviorist or environmentalist view
• According to Skinner's theory of Operant Conditioning, learning is a function of change that occurs in an organism's observable behaviors
• Behaviorists see language development as a process of building behaviors through conditioning that occurs through interactions with the environment
• Skinner stated that adults selectively reinforce young children's vocalizations which to them resemble recognizable speech and disregard those vocalizations that they find irrelevant
• Children will repeat reinforced responses
• The child's responses gradually become more similar to adult speech through what Skinner called successive approximations
• Skinner believed children acquire verbal behavior matching that of their "given verbal community" via this process
• As their vocalizations approach recognized speech forms, these "produce appropriate consequences" for the children.
• Main principles include that positively reinforced behavior recurs, that responses can be shaped through presenting information in small increments, and that reinforcement promotes response generalization to other stimuli
• Limitations of this view include that the rules and structure of language cannot be derived through sheer imitation, and that children often cannot repeat adult utterances

DESCRIBE THE COGNITIVIST VIEW OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND DISCUSS PIAGET'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENMTAL THEORY

• In contrast to environmentalism and behaviorism, the cognitivist view of learning posits that learning occurs in mental processes, rather than external behaviors
• In other words, what a child does is not as important as what a child is thinking.
• Cognitivism views internal mental activity rather than environmental stimuli as the source of learning
• PIAGET was one of the first and most well-known cognitivists
• He viewed language acquisition as part of a child's overall cognitive development
• Therefore, he believed that language acquisition follows the stages of intellectual development he proposed
• Piaget stated that to acquire any specific linguistic form, a child first must be able to understand its underlying concept
• Piaget defined the stages of cognitive development as SENSORIMOTOR, PREOPERATIONAL, CONCRETE OPERATIONS, AND FORMAL OPERATIONS
• Children in Sensorimotor and Preoperational stages cannot perceive others' viewpoints; Piaget dubbed them egocentric
• Sensorimotor infants first perform reflexive activities, and then learn to coordinate their sensations and motor movements
• As they become aware of objects, infants develop object-orientation and object permanence (realizing objects continue to exist when out of their sight), then intentional actions
• Infants develop mental constructs (schemata) representing objects
• By the age of 2, they internalize these schemata, thereby enabling symbolic thinking - representing things/concepts with linguistic symbols (words)
• Concrete Operations-stage children can perform and reverse mental operations, but only regarding concrete objects
• In Formal Operations they grasp and manipulate abstract concepts, including abstract word meanings (semantics) and operations (higher order syntax, grammar, etc.)

DESCRIBE THE CONNECTIONIST/PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING MODEL OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

• In this view, knowledge is connections, not just the units being connected
• Learning occurs by forming and traversing these neural connections
• Therefore, gaining knowledge is not acquiring facts and abilities but building connections and using them to transmit information
• This viewpoint shifts the focus of language learning from discrete pieces of knowledge (e.g., vocabulary or verb endings) to the ability to connect those pieces and use them in context

DESCRIBE CHOMSKY'S ROLE IN DEVELOPING THE NATIVIST THEORY AND DISCUSS HIS LAD THEORY AND SYNTACTIC THEORY OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

• Noam Chomsky is the major proponent of the nativist theory of language development
• He maintains that humans possess an internal Language Acquisition Device (LAD), allowing them to generate linguistic structures more easily and naturally than they could without it
• In contrast to behaviorists, Chomsky asserts that environmental factors influence, but do not determine, this process
• Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is his theoretical construct representing an innate mechanism or tool set he says all humans possess for learning language
• Chomsky asserts that since the brain is part of the body, the mental world is part of the biological world in which we live
• As a result, the mental world follows biological processes
• He designates language development as "language growth" in that the "language organ" grows in the brain like any other bodily organ
• His Syntactic Theory explains that speakers understand internal sentence structure (syntax) via "phrase structure rules"
• His "poverty of stimulus" argument is that children hear many fragmented, ungrammatical, or unstructured adult utterances, yet still construct correct grammars, which he views as evidence of universal, inborn language abilities
• He also points out that children having different experiences still form the same linguistic rules

DISCUSS CHOMSKY'S THEORY OF INNATE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

• Chomsky proposed the "Innateness Hypothesis" - that all humans have an inborn ability to develop language
• This is due to Universal Grammar (UG) or "Generative Grammar" - a set of linguistic rules with which our brains are pre-programmed
• Chomsky says that this inherent blueprint or template for language structures explains why even deaf and/or blind children and/or children with deaf and/or blind parents develop language in the same ways, following the same stages, as do all other children
• Chomsky has stated that language development is an inevitable occurrence with children rather than a voluntary action
• In other words, given a suitable environment, including "appropriate nutrition and environmental stimulation", they will acquire language naturally, similarly to their predetermined physical maturation processes
• Chomsky's UG(Universal Grammar) does not contain specific rules of every language
• Rather, it contains general "principles and parameters" from which language rules are derived

DESCRIBE CHOMSKY'S IDEA KKNOWN AS TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR

• Noam Chomsky has proposed that language consists of "deep structures" and "surface structures"
• Deep structures are the forms in which linguistic concepts originate
• He says our minds then perform "transformations" which change these deep structures to surface structures, which are the final forms of our spoken and written language
• For example, a basic statement is a deep structure, and we transform it to make it grammatically complete
• As a result, we turn the statement into a question or a negative, or both
• A deep structure might convey "He is going out"
• Chomsky proposes that we automatically make transformations to this structure to turn it into a question: "Is he going out?" or a negative: "He is not going out;" or both: "He is not going out, is he?"
• So for Chomsky, the essential concept is the same, but the semantic changes (changes in meaning) and syntactic changes (changes in sentence structure that produce such variations as questions and negatives) are achieved through transformations from the same deep structure to various surface structures

DISCUSS ATTITUDES AND APPROPACHES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING INCORPORATING CHOMSKY'S THEORY OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

• According to Chomsky, learning language is not something that children actually do, but is a natural process occurring universally in children as they develop
• Chomsky has stated that we live in a biological world; the body - including the brain, and the "language organ" he believes our brains inherently possess- physically matures over time according to predetermined patterns
• Chomsky proposed that we are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in our brains, thereby facilitating language development
• He allowed that children need proper nutrition and environmental stimulation in order to nurture the natural language development enabled by the LAD
• Therefore, language teachers would want to ensure their students receive optimal physical nourishment and stimulus-rich environments, under the teacher's influence at school and at home inasmuch as this is possible
• Because Chomsky that found all humans share Universal Grammar (UG) regardless of individual languages, language teachers would emphasize basic commonalities between English and the target language in order to help students relate the two languages
• Differences could be addressed through correcting target language errors over time as students' target language proficiency progresses

DESCRIBE BRUNER'S INTERACTIONIST THEORY AND SOME OF ITS DIFFERENCES WITH CHOMSKY'S MODEL

• Jerome Bruner was the main proponent of Interactionist theory, which says that interactions between the child and parents/caregivers determine the course of language development
• This theory draws heavily from the constructivist concept of learning
• Piaget often is credited with founding constructivist learning theory -the idea that learning is a process in which learners actively build, or construct, new concepts and ideas upon their foundations of existing knowledge
• Piaget focused on the cognitive aspects of this construction and on the learner's interactions with actions upon the environment, while Bruner focused more on the social aspects of learning and on the learner's interactions with parents and others, reflecting the work of Lev Vygotsky and his sociocultural theory of learning
• Bruner emphasizes adult-child interactions as promoting children's language acquisition
• Bruner sees child-directed speech (CDS), the linguistic behaviors of adults in speaking to children, as having a specialized adaptation of supporting the process of language development
• Bruner termed such support "scaffolding"
• Chomsky proposed a universal Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that we all possess, reflecting innate ability to structure language
• Bruner countered this proposal with a Language Acquisition Support system (LASS), an innate ability to read and interpret social situations and interactions and hence to understand language and learn it readily
• This reflects Bruner's greater emphasis on the interactions of the learning child with the family and social environment and the support they give

DESCRIBE THE THEOERETICAL NEED FOR SCAFFOLDING IN COGNITIVE GROWTH

• Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976) concluded from their research that parents and other adults give children "scaffolding" or the temporary support they need to promote their cognitive growth
• They found that in everyday interactions involving play, adults provided support structures (analogous to the scaffolds temporarily erected around buildings under construction) in order to help children understand new concepts and perform new tasks
• This analogy is consistent with the constructivist theory to which Bruner subscribed, wherein we construct our realities as well as new ideas based on our knowledge
• The purposes of scaffolding include making new ideas or tasks simpler and easier for children to understand giving learning children motivation and encouragement to learn, emphasizing the most important components of a task, correcting any errors they may have made in attempting it, and supplying adult models for children of the behaviors they are engaged in learning, which the children can observe and then imitate
• The concept of scaffolding has also been applied to Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of learning, especially his Zone of Proximal Development(what a learner can do not on his/her own but rather what he/she can do with guidance of a more developed learner or adult), and to Stephen Krashen's hypotheses of language acquisition, especially the concept of i+1.

DESCRIBE THE 5 MAIN HYPOTHESES OF KRASHEN'S INPUT MODEL OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

• Stephen Krashen presented the input model of language learning, which has 5 main hypotheses:
• ACQUISITION/LEARNING DISTINCTION: Acquisition is the normal process of "getting" a language, as small children universally do
• Learning is formally studying a language in a classroom
• Acquisition is subconscious, while learning involves engaging our conscious understanding
• INPUT: Language is acquired by receiving comprehensible input, utterances that are above the speaking level of the individual but understandable by them. Comprehensible input is sometimes denoted as i+1
• NATURAL ORDER: There is a normal order in which rules of language are acquired
• MONITOR: Learning, the formal and conscious study of a language, is primarily useful in monitoring what has been acquired, allowing the individual to make adjustments and corrections
• Learning is not a replacement for acquisition
• AFFECTIVE FILTER: Aversive feelings such as discomfort, stress, self-consciousness, and/or lack of motivation can be associated with language learning, most commonly in adults and older teenagers
• This can hinder language acquisition

DESCRIBE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, INCLUDING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION FROM NATURAL SITUATIONS

• NOTE: In the field of language acquisition, one's first, or "native" language is referred to as L1.
• Languages learned later in life are referred to as L2 (or L3 for a third language, and so on)
• L1 is constructed from experiences: environmental (all those things that go "vroom" are cars) or social ("Hi" is what people say when they see each other) and also from prior knowledge in the same language (Walked = walk yesterday Talked = ?)
• Similarly, L2 can be constructed from experiences and prior knowledge of the same language
• In addition, L2 can be constructed using prior knowledge of L1 (I can talk about yesterday by adding -ed in L1. What will I add to the end of a word in L2 to talk about yesterday?)
• A language learner, whether a young child learning L1 or an older child learning L2, can receive natural language input from many sources: home, peers, school, and the cultural environment
• If the L2 learner is not immersed in a culture where the target language is spoken, he will have fewer sources of language input
• A Spanish-speaking young person living in an English-speaking culture will hear his L2 - English - from peers, at school, and in his everyday environment
• An English-speaking young person living in an English-speaking culture will hear his L2 - Spanish - with less frequency, possibly only from his teacher at school

DESCRIBE SIMILARITIES FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, INCLUDING LEARNING STRATEGIES AND PREDICTABILITY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING PATTERNS

• L1 and L2 language learners use similar strategies as they learn and to compensate for what they do not know
• One example of a learning strategy used by both L1 and L2 learners is overgeneralization (e.g., using typical past tense/preterite endings even for irregular verbs - saying goed instead of went or tenió instead of tuvo)
• Both types of learners also use circumlocution - talking around a word that they do not know (I need the thing for washing my hair....shampoo)
• Krashen's natural order hypothesis suggests that language acquisition will follow a predictable pattern, whether the language being acquired is L1 or L2
• This has been supported by research
• /for example, single words or formulaic phrases are mastered first ("pool"), then a simple sentence structure ("We go to the pool"), then an understanding of how parts of a sentence can move around ("Can we go to the pool? Are we going to the pool? I really like going to the pool! Did you go to the pool last summer?")

DESCRIBE THE PHENOMENON OF SILENT PERIOD AND MOTHERESE SPEECH IN BOTH THE L1 AND L2

• L2 learners do well when allowed to listen without responding for a period of time, just like a young child does in first language acquisition, where first words are not uttered for months!
• However, this "silent period" is not as necessary or prolonged in L2, probably due to increased cognitive skills of an older learner and their pre-existing knowledge of L1
• The way adults speak to young children ("baby talk or motherese), with single or repeated words, simple phrases, slow utterance, and a distinct tone of voice, allows children to receive comprehensible input (Cup? Anna wants a cup of water?)
• Modified vocabulary, structure, speed, and tone to provide comprehensible input is similarly helpful to L2 learners, which is why we often speak more slowly and with simpler words when we speak with  non-native speakers

DESCRIBE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, INCLUDING THE CRITICAL PERIOD AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• L1 has a critical period: if for a horrible reason (abuse, abandonment, etc.), a child is not exposed to and does not acquire a first language by a certain age (somewhere between age 5 and puberty), they will never master a language
• Research has not supported this for L2 learners - if you have learned a first language, you can learn a second language at any point in your lifespan
• L2 learners are older than L1 learners
• Therefore, they are more developed cognitively, so they have more cognitive tools at their disposal
• For example, they have greater prior knowledge of world, they can learn more quickly, and they have more control over the input they receive - they can ask for repetition or clarification
• They can learn and apply rules, they have a first language from which they can transfer, and they have experience using their first language in real-life settings

DESCRIBE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, INCLUDING AFFECTIVE FACTORS AND TRANSFER, INTERFERENCE, AND ACCENT

• Affective filters play a larger role in L2 acquisition
• Older learners are more likely than toddlers to experience inhibitions, anxiety, and motivation (or lack thereof) as they study a language
• Family and peer attitudes and behaviors toward the target language and culture (which may be different from their own) can also increase a learner's affective filter
• An L2 learner has already learned a language (L1)
• Transfer from L1 is not always helpful, either because it does not contain structures or vocabulary that L2 does or because the two languages are syntactically or semantically different in some regards (e.g., preterite and imperfect in Spanish vs. only one past tense in English, false cognates like carpeta/folder and carpet/alfombra)
• Some evidence shows that with age, it is more difficult to achieve a native-like accent
• This is believed to be partially physiological - our palates harden as we approach puberty, making them inflexible to creating sounds not already learned
• There is also a neural component to this reality: babies at 6 months of age can distinguish between native language sounds and non-native sounds and pay more attention to native language sounds

DESCRIBE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, INCLUDING KRASHEN'S LEARNING/ACQUISITION DISTINCTION AND THE FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCE HYPOTHESIS

• While L1 is always acquired, not all students have the opportunity to acquire L2
• Classroom learning, no matter how carefully it mirrors L1 acquisition, does not usually provide L2 input 12 hours a day for several years in a variety of contexts and therefore L2 classrooms are a less effective way to achieve fluency in a language
• This hypothesis posits that L2 learners are not able to access Universal Grammar (UG)/Language Acquisition Device (LAD) to the same extent as L1 learners, making it more difficult to learn a second or subsequent language
• This is suggested because very nearly all learners of L1 learn it fluently, which is not the case for L2 learners

DESCRIBE THE STEPS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING GIVEN IN THE CONTINUUM OF LEARNING THEORY

• The Continuum of Learning theory outlines predictable steps when learning a new language:
• The Silent/Receptive or Preproduction stage can last from a few hours to six months
• Students usually don't say much and communicate by using pictures and pointing
• In the Early Production stage, students use one- and two-word phrases
• They indicate understanding with yes and no and who/what/where questions
• This stage can last six months
• The Speech Emergence stage may last a year
• Students use short sentences and begin to ask simple questions
• Grammatical errors may make communication challenging
• In the Intermediate Language Proficiency stage students begin to make complex statements, share thoughts and opinions, and speak more often.
• This stage may last a year or more
• The Advanced Learning Proficiency stage lasts five to seven years
• Students have acquired a substantial vocabulary and are capable of participating fully in classroom activities and discussions

DISCUSS PATTERNS COMMONLY OBSERVED IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS, INCLUDING INTERLANGUAGE INTERFERENCE AND FOSSILIZATION

• An interlanguage is a normal stage of language learning, where students exhibit transitional competence - a cohesive, rule-bound use of the target language that is not native
• This interlanguage is often colored by transfer from L1
• For example, an English-speaking Spanish student may express likes and dislikes by saying "Me gusta corriendo. No me gusta bailando" ¿Te gusta bailando o corriendo?"
• This is cohesive - the student has a rule-bound pattern of using the gerund after me/te gusta
• This is also how the phrase is constructed in English (I like running)
• However, it is non-native, because a native speaker would be more likely to use the infinitive: "Me gusta correr"
• Fossilization occurs when learners plateau at their interlanguage rather than progressing on to native-like competence
• If a learner continues saying "Me gusta corriendo" as above rather than learning to say "Me gusta correr", then fossilization will take place
• An L2 teacher should not be surprised by students using an interlanguage, as it is a natural stage of language learning, but the teacher should also help a student avoid fossilization by modeling native competence ("Hmm...¿te gusta correr?")

DISCUSS PATTERNS COMMONLY OBSERVED IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS, INCLUDING CODE SWITCHING AND COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

• Code switching is a common practice among language learners and bilingual individuals in which the speaker goes from using one language to another mid-speech (¿Quieres ir to the park with me?)
• This switch typically involves one word/phrase or occurs in predictable places in sentence structure - at the end of a clause rather than in the middle of it
• Since code switching is a universal practice among bilingual individuals, experts are divided as to how much a teacher should discourage the practice in the classroom
• Language learners employ a variety of communication strategies to compensate for gaps in their ability
• Some of these strategies include paraphrasing (repeating a simpler, sorter version of what was said), substituting words (using "animal" instead of "gato" when you don't know the word for "cat"), coining words (Mi mama es nice-o), and mediating meaning with their interlocutor (e.g., asking for repetition, paraphrasing and looking for approval, using hand motions or other contextual props)

EXPLAIN PHONETIC LANGUAGES AND THE RELATION OF PHONOLOGY WITH SPANISH

• Spanish is a phonetic language, which means that every letter (vowels as well as consonants) and some combinations of letters each have an associated sound
• This associated sound is used every single time that this particular lettter or combination of letters appears in a word
• Therefore, as in all phonetic languages, if you know how to spell a word, you know how to pronounce it
• The only exceptions are foreign or borrowed words, which are sometimes pronounced the same way they are pronounced in the original languages (for example, los jeans)

DISCUSS THE PHONOLOGICAL RULES REGARDING THE FIVE SPANISH VOWELS

• Spanish has five vowels, the same as English, but they are different from English in the sense that they make one and only one sound regardless of their position in the word or which letters come before and after them
• For example, the vowel a in Spanish is always pronounced like a shorter version of the a in car
• There is no difference in the way it sounds whether it is at the beginning of the word (amanecer), between two consonants (caro), between a consonant and a vowel (caer, teatro) or at the end of the word (mesa)
• The same consistency of pronunciation is true of the vowels e, i, o, and u: there is only one sound for each of them.
• e is pronounced similarly to the short e in bed(entrar)
• i is pronounced like a long or double ee as in see (hijo)
• o is pronounced like a long o in go (dormir)
• u is pronounced similarly to oo or ue as they appear in the English words goo or sue (usar)

DESCRIBE THE TWO PRONUNCIATIONS OF THE LETTER C IN SPANISH

• The letter c has two different pronunciations depending on which letter follows it, much like in English
• If followed by an a(camino), o (correr), u(cuñado), or a consonant (conectar), the letter c sounds like the English hard c in cone and camera or like the k in break and kite
• If followed by the vowels e (centro) or i (cigarillo), the letter c sounds like the English soft c in face and celery or like the s in safe or best
• In some regions of Spain, c followed by e or i is not pronounced s, but rather th as in the English words think or with(e.g., centro is pronounced thentro
• When a Spanish word contains a double c (occidente, collección, diccionario), each c individually follows the rules above
• The first c, which is followed by a consonant, has the strong sound of k
• The second c, which is usually followed by the vowel i, will be pronounced s or th depending on the region
• Therefore in most of the Spanish-speaking world, cc will sound similar to its pronunciation in the English words accident and access, or like the x sound found in exit
• In some parts of Spain, diccionario would be pronounced dicthionario
• When the letter c is followed by the consonant h (chico), it forms the new letter/phoneme ch

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTERS CH IN SPANISH

• The Spanish ch is always pronounced one way
• It has the exact same sound as found in English words such as church, charcoal, and march
• Spanish dictionaries have a separate section for the ch, which is located after the letter c
• A few common words in Spanish that use ch are chancho(pig), mucho(much), chico(boy), and chaqueta(jacket)

DISCUSS THE DIFFERENCES IN USE OF THE LETTER F IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH

• The sound of the phoneme f in Spanish is the same as its sound in English as found in words such as family and future
• It is never pronounced with the v sound found in the English word of
• The phoneme f is obtained in Spanish only by the use of the letter f, while in English the same sound appears in words with f(face), ff(coffin), and ph(photograph
• The letter f is never doubled in Spanish and the ph combination does not exist in Spanish
• In some foreign words the ph has been replaced by a single f(telephone - teléfono, trophy - trofeo)

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTER G IN SPANISH

• When followed by a consonant (regla, negro) or by the vowels a, o, or u (gato, agosto, gusto), the sound of the letter g in Spanish is similar to its hard sound in English words such as good and game
• If the letter g is followed by the vowels e or i (generar, registro), its sound is like the sound of the Spanish j(a strong English h)
• If there is a u between the letter g and the vowels e or i (guerra, guiso) the u is not pronounced and the letter g recovers its hard sound

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTER H IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH

• In English, the letter h has a soft, aspirated sound (happy)
• In Spanish, by contrast, it is almost always silent
• Most of the words that contain a letter h in Spanish have Latin or Greek roots, and the h has only been kept for etymological reasons
• The only time h is pronounced is in foreign words with no equivalent spelling in Spanish such as Hawaii, hámster, and hobby
• In those cases, the letter h sounds like the Spanish letter j
• Recall that when the letter h follows the letter c(mucho, chancho), it forms a unique phoneme ch

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTER J IN SPANISH

• The letter j has a completely different pronunciation from that of the same letter in English, and its sound is not found in English
• The sound in English that most approximates the Spanish letter j would be an extremely hard and strong h, an exaggeration of the sound in words such as hot and home
• In some regions, the j is pronounced slightly softer than it is in other regions
• Remember that in Spanish, the letter g, when followed by the vowels e as in género (genre) and digerir (digest) or i as in registrar(register) and higiene (hygiene), has the same strong sound as the letter j

DESCRIBE THE REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PRONUNCATION OF THE DOUBLE L IN SPANISH

• Double l, or ll, is considered its own letter in Spanish
• the way the double l is pronounced varies by regions, and sometimes even within the same country
• In most Spanish-speaking areas, the ll has a soft sound similar to the English y in yes or yellow
• In many parts of Argentina and Uruguay, however, the double l is much stronger and is pronounced like the zh phoneme found in English in words such as measure and pleasure
• In other regions, it is pronounced somewhat like the English letter j as it sounds in jelly or Japan
• Common words that have the ll phoneme are lluvia (rain), llorar ( to cry), and llegar (to arrive)

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTER ñ IN SPANISH

• The letter ñ does not exist in English but is considered its own separate letter in Spanish
• The letter ñ can be found in words such as mañana (morning or tomorrow), año (year), señor(mister), and niña (girl)
• The most similar sounds in English that resemble the ñ in Spanish are the ny or ni phonemes as found in words such as cañyon, onion, or opinion
• In the Spanish alphabet the ñ is located after the letter n

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTER Q IN SPANISH

• In Spanish, the letter q has the sound of the English letter k
• The letter q is always followed by a u(qu) and then either an e (querido, quebrar, quemar, quedar, quejido) or an i (quizá, quitar, quince, quieto)
• There are very few exceptions (quantum, quorum), all of which have foreign roots

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTER R IN SPANISH

• The letter r has two distinctively different pronunciations in Spanish: a soft one, similar to the English tt or dd sounds, and a strong, rolling one
• the soft sound is used whenever a single letter r is in the middle of a word between two vowels (caro, puro, aire), between a vowel and most consonants (tren, jardín, parte), or at the end of a word (caminar, comer, recibir)
• At the beginning of a word (reto, rápido, rojo) or after the consonants l, n, and s(alrededor, sonrisa, Israel), the single letter r is pronounced with the strong trilling sound used in the double r or rr phoneme

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE DOUBLE R IN SPANISH

• The double r or rr is not considered a separate letter, but is a very frequently used phoneme in Spanish
• Some common words that include the double r are correr, perro, arriba, and carro
• The rr has a trilling sound that can be achieved by flapping the tongue against the front of the mouth
• If properly "rolled", the rr sound should be similar to the one you get when you try to imitate a motor
• Be aware that the rr is used only between vowels
• A similar trilling sound at the beginning of a word or after certain consonants (l,n,s) is spelled with a single r

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTER W IN SPANISH

• The letter w is not native to the Spanish language, and it appears only in words that come from other languages
• Depending on the country, it is called uve doble, v doble, doble u, or doble v
• Words in Spanish with a w have mostly English roots (waterpolo, hawaino, whisky) and are usually pronounced with the English w sound as found in water and winter
• In some countries, however, the w is pronounced with a very lightly pronounced g added before the English w for a gw sound

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTER Y IN SPANISH

• In Spanish, the letter y can be treated as a vowel or a consonant
• At the end of a word (rey, muy, soy), it is always pronounced as the Spanish vowel i
• If the letter y is before a vowel (yo, ya, yarda), in most countries it is also pronounced as the Spanish vowel i
• However, in Argentina and Uruguay, the letter y before another vowel sounds more like the English phoneme sh as found in words such as shower and show or the zh phoneme found in English words such as measure and pleasure
• In other regions, the letter y before another vowel will sound similar to the English j, making the Spanish word yo sound like the English word Joe

DESCRIBE THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTER Z IN SPANISH

• In Spanish the letter z, regardless of which letter comes after it, has the same sound as the letter c(cena) or i(cocina)
• therefore, in most of Latin American countries, it sounds like the s in English words such as silence and instant, while in most of Spain it sounds like the th in English words such as think and thunder
• In Spanish, the lettter z is typically not used before an e or i except in words of foreign origin (zepelin, zigzaguear
• Due to this rule, the letter z is replaced by a c when forming the plural of words ending in z (lápiz/lápices, tapiz/tapices) and in certain verb conjugations

DESCRIBE THE USE OF DIPTHONGS IN SPANISH

• Spanish has several diphthongs - two vowels blended together to make a sound that begins as one vowel sound and ends as another, as listed below along with examples of words that contain them:
• ai/ay baile, hay
• ei,ey seis, rey
• oi/oy oigo, estoy
• ui/uy ruido, muy
• au pausa, autor
• eu Europa, deuda
• ia anciano, media
• ie viejo, siempre
• io sucio, delicioso
• iu ciudad, viuda
• ua igual, cuatro
• ue bueno, juego
• uo antiguo, monstruo
• If one of the vowels carries an accent mark, the vowel pair is no longer a diphthong (media vs. comía

DESCRIBE THE USE OF TRIPHTHONGS IN SPANISH

• Triphthongs are primarily found in second person plural forms of verbs in Spanish
• They can occur with an accented middle vowel or without an accented middle vowel
• iai/iái: riais, cambiáis
• iei/iéi: guies, cambiéis
• uay/uái: Paraguay, averiguáis
• uéi/üéi: habituéis, averigüéis
• Other triphthongs are infrequent and occur in slang or onomatopoeias such as uau in guau(a dog barking)

DESCRIBE COMMON SPANISH USE OF SYLLABLES

• Spanish syllables are primarily CVC(consonant, vowel, consonant) or CV (consonant, vowel)
• As in English, every syllable must contain a vowel
• The most common dividing point for Spanish syllables is a consonant followed by a vowel(cuchara = cu-cha-ra)
• When two consonants occur next to each other, they are split into two separate syllables unless the second consonant is an l or an r (cuando = cuan-do, trabajo = tra-ba-jo)
• When three consonants occur together, the are typically split with the first in one syllable and the second two in another syllable (inglés)
• When two vowels occur next to each other, keep diphthongs together in one syllable and split other vowel pairs or accented vowels into separate syllables (baile = bai-le, feo = fe-o, sucio = su-cio, tío = tí-o

DESCRIBE THE RULES FOR PLACING STRESS ON SYLLABLES

• For words that end in a vowel, -n, or -s, the stress falls onm the penultimate syllable
• e.g., nada = NA-da, zapato = za-PA-to, limonada = li-mo-NA-da
• Stress for words ending in consonants other than -n or -s falls on the last syllable (e.g., ciudad = ci-u-DAD, doctor = doc-TOR
• Exceptions are noted with a written accent mark (e.g., lápiz = LA-piz, comió = com- i-O

DESCRIBE VERB INFLECTIONS AND NOUN INFLECTIONS IN SPANISH

• Spanish verbs are inflected by changing endings
• These conjugations mark number, person, tense, mood, and aspect
• Verb inflections will be described in the Syntax sections
• Spanish nouns are divided into grammatical "genders" and are marked for number
• Only pronouns are marked for case (subject vs. object vs. object of preposition)
• Articles and adjectives are inflected to match the nouns they modify in both number and gender

DESCRIBE THE APPLICATION OF GENDER IN SPANISH MORPHOLOGY

• There are two genders in Spanish (masculine and feminine) for nouns, adjectives, and articles
• Every noun has a gender; there is no neuter in Spanish (the English pronoun "it" is an example of a neuter)
• Even inanimate objects and other nouns that no connotations with biological gender have a grammatical gender, and the two conceptions of gender have little relation
• For example, the word for a dress (vestido) is masculine.

DESCRIBE THE APPLICATION OF GENDER IN WORDS THAT CAN BE EITHER MASCULINE OR FEMININE

• Nouns that refer to people or animals generally have two versions: one ending in -a for the female (niña, gata, perra), and one ending in -o for the male (niño, gato, perro)
• There are other rules used in Spanish to form the feminine of a noun referring to an animate being:
• Nouns that end in -or, án, -ón, and ín are usually masculine and form the feminine by adding an -a (doctor/doctora); alemán/alemana; campeón/campeona; bailarín/bailarina)
• Nouns ending in -ista, and -nte stay the same for both the feminine and the masculine, but the article and any adjective used changes (el artista/la artista; el cantante alto/la cantante alta)
• Sometimes, as in English, the female and male of the same animate object use different nouns rather than two versions of the same noun (woman/man, mujer/hombre), but the gender assignment is consistent with the gender they represent(la mujer, el hombre)
• Some nouns have the same form for the feminine and the masculine, but their meaning is different depending on the gender (el capital = money; la capital= city; el frente= front/la frente = dorehead; el orden=neatness/ la orden=command

EXPLAIN THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL FORMS OF NOUNS

• The process to form the plural of a noun from the singular version is very similar in Spanish and English
• In Spanish, all nouns ending in a vowel are made plural by adding an -s at the end of the word(libro/libros; hermana/hermanas)
• When the noun ends in a consonant, instead of adding an -s, the noun is pluralized by adding -es (mes/meses; ley/leyes; árbol/árboles, pescador/pescadores) just as is done in English with words that end in -s, -ch, -sh, -x, or
• -o(fox/foxes)
• Be aware of required spelling changes when adding -es (pez/peces; lápiz/lápices)
• Some nouns, such as los anteojos (glasses) and las tijeras (scissors), are always used in plural in Spanish
• Others, such as las afueras(outskirts), las ganas (willingness) and los bienes (assets), are generally used in the plural but might be occasionally used in the singular
• Nouns that have more than one syllable and end with an unstressed vowel plus an -s do not have a different form for the plural (la crisis/las crisis; el jueves/los jueves; el paraguas/los paraguas)
• Family names are not pluralized in Spanish (La familia García vive en esta casa = The García family lives in this house; Mi hermana conoce a los García = my sister knows the Garcías)

DESCRIBE SPANISH RULES FOR AGREEMENT BETWEEN NOUNS AND ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES

• In Spanish, the article and the adjective used with a noun must agree in gender and number with the noun they refer to (el coche rojo, los coches rojos, la blusa amarilla, las blusas amarillas)
• The rules for inflecting adjectives for number and gender are contained below:
• MASCULINE WORDS THAT ARE SINGULAR END IN -O LIKE THE WORD ALTO
• This word gets pluralized by adding an -s - altos
• FEMININE forms of this word ALTO have an -a instead of the -o - ALTA
• This word gets pluralized by adding an -s = ALTAS
• Masculine Nouns that end with -e such as interesante or end with -ista, like egoísta get pluralized by adding -s or -es (interesantes/ egoístas)
• The feminine form in the singular is the same as the male - interesante/interesantes/egoísta/egoístas
• Masculine nouns ending with a consonant (gris) becomes grises, but there is an exception for words ending in -z like feliz
• The pluralization of words ending in z (feliz) requires the z to change to c before adding -es (felices)
• The same rule holds true for feminine forms of these words
• Masculine words ending with -or, ón, or -in = trabajador get pluralized by adding es
• Feminine words ending in -or, ón, -in will have an -a added to the word (trabajador/trabajadora)
• Pluralization of these words require an -s or -as to the masculine form to make it feminine (trabajador/trabajadora/trabajadoras)
• The subject of the sentence and the verb associated with that subject must agree in person and number (el niño lloró; los niños lloraron; yo tengo frío; nosotros tenemos frío; tú vienes esta noche; ustedes vienen esta noche)
• There are also rules for the agreement of verb tenses and modes
• These forms and rules will be discussed in the Syntax section

EXPLAIN THE RULES FOR DETERMINING THE GENDER OF NOUNS IN SPANISH

• With very few exceptions, nouns that end with the letter -o are masculine(carro, libro), and nouns that end with the letter -a are feminine (casa, mesa)
• There are some special rules regarding the gender of nouns:
• Nouns ending in -dad, -tad, -tud, -umbre, -ión, -ie, -cia, -ez, and -eza are usually feminine (la ciudad, la libertad, la certidumbre, la canción, la serie, la dferencia, la sencillez, la tristeza)
• Nouns ending in -aje, -ambre, -or, and -án are usually masculine (el equipaje, el calambre, el valor, el refrán)
• Other groups of nouns that are masculine include:
• the days of the week (el martes, el jueves)
• the months of the year (el enero, el agosto)
• languages (el griego, el inglés)
• numbers (el uno, el diez)
• colors (el gris, el blanco)
• infinitives (el contaminar, el caminar)
• rivers, seas, and oceans (el río Nilo, el mar Rojo, el océano Pacífico)

DESCRIBE SPANISH RULES FOR EXPRESSIONS THAT COMPARE BY SUPERIORITY AND INFERIORITY

• In English, comparison are often made by creating new word forms (nice/nicer, fast/fastest, good/better/worse)
• In most cases, comparison in Spanish are denoted by the expressions más...que and menos...que with the adjective, adverb, or noun placed in between (Juan es más grande que Pedro; yo trabajo más rápidamente que Tomás; tenemos más confianze que tú; mi jardín está menos iluminado que el del vecino; Susana tiene menos dinero que Ana)
• There are a few Spanish words that have their own comparative forms
• The most notable are menor(younger), mayor (older), mejor(better), and peor (worse)
• These words replace the más... or menos... in the previous construction (yo soy menor que mi hermano; mi hermano es mayor que yo; Pedro tiene mejor voz que Juan; Juan tiene peor voz que Pedro)

DESCRIBE SPANISH RULES FOR EXPRESSING A COMPARISON OF EQUALITY

• To express a comparison of equality, the Spanish language uses the expression tan...como with the adjective or adverb in between (Juan es tan alto como Pedro; Juan escribe tan bien como Pedro)
• If the comparison includes a noun, the expression tanto...como is used (Este vaso tiene tanto jugo como ése)
• In this expression, tanto has to agree in gender and number with the noun it refers to (tengo tanto frío como ustedes; Juan tiene tantos juguetes como Pedro; la montaña recibió tanta lluvia como el valle; tantas hermanas como Juan)

DESCRIBE THE SPANISH RULES FOR RELATIVE SUPERLATIVES

• The relative superlative describes a noun in the context of a group
• In English, relative superlatives are noted by placing the words most or least before the adjective, adverb, or noun, or adding the suffix -est
• (Maria is the most beautiful of her sisters, Juan is the least qualified in the department, Pedro is the fastest runner on his team)
• the superlative degree of adjectives in Spanish is expressed by using the comparative form of the adjective (más lindo, menos inteligente) preceded by the definitive article (el más lindo, el menos inteligente)
• The definite article has to agree in gender and number with the noun it refers to (María es la más bonita de las hermanas; Pedro y Juan son los menos autoritarios del grupo; estas casas son las más caras de la zona)
• This rule also applies to the irregular comparatives such as mejor, peor, mayor, menor (la mejor carne de la región; el peor alumno del la clase, las mayores distancias del país; los menores detalles del a pintura)

DESCRIBE THE SPANISH RULES FOR ABSOLUTE SUPERLATIVES

• The absolute superlative describes a noun without comparing it to a group and is communicated with the words very or extremely in English (Pedro is very intelligent)
• One way to denote the absolute superlative in Spanish is by adding muy or extremadamente/sumamente before the adjective (Pedro es extremadamente cuidadoso)
• Another option is to add the suffix -ísimo to the adjective (Pedro es inteligentísmo) in accordance in gender and number with the noun it refers to (ísima, ísimos, ísimas)
• Adjectives ending in a vowel lose that vowel when the suffix -ísimo is added
• Examples: mucho/muchísimo; cara/carísima; malos/malísimos; pequeños/pequeñísimos
• Be aware of spelling changes required to comply with the spelling rules (rico/riquísimo; largo/larguísimo; feliz/felicísimo

EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF DERIVATE WORDS IN SPANISH AND GIVE SOME EXAMPLES

• A derivate word is one that has been formed using an existing word as its base
• Derivatives are not variations of a word, like different conjugation forms of the same verb (eat/eats/eating) or the plural of a noun (house/houses)
• Rather, they are new words coming from a "base" word (clear/clearly/unclear, respect/respectful/disrespect)
• These new words are often formed with derivational prefixes and suffixes in English.
• The concept is the same in Spanish (persona/personalmente/impersonal/ conocer/conocimiento/desconocer)
• However, in English, many words are used interchangeably as nouns and verbs
• For example, I ride a bike: ride is a verb
• My friend gives me a ride : ride is a noun
• In Spanish, even these derivate words will be marked differently for different parts of speech
• I love my mom = Yo amo a mi mamá
• Love is important = El amor es importante

PROVIDE SOME COMMON EXAMPLES OF DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES

• Some examples of suffixes that form nouns from verbs in Spanish are - dor (trabajar-trabajador)
• Also -miento (pensar - pensamiento)
• Some examples of Spanish suffixes that form adjectives are -ble (amar-amable)
• Also, -tivo (competir - competitivo)
• Sometimes the noun or adjective will contain spelling changes that the verb undergoes (juego = game)
• This is similar to the spelling changes in the verb jugar or to be related to the past participle of the verb (el puesto, el dicho)
• If you don't recognize a word immediately, you can consider different forms of a verb that appears to be related to help you identify the "word family" of a given word

DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF ADVERB FORMATION IN SPANISH

• To form an adverb from an adjective in Spanish, the suffix -mente is added to the feminine singular form of the adjective
• examples: rápido/rápidamente; lento/lentamente
• This is similar to the addition of -ly to an adjective to form an adverb in English
• examples: quick/quickly; sad/sadly
• Adjectives that are the same in the feminine and ikn the masculine add -mente to their singular form
• examples: fácil/fácilmente; triste/tristemente
• As in English, some adjectives do not change form to become adverbs (e.g., alto, bajo, fuerte)
• Demasiado, más, menos, mucho, poco, mejor, peor, and tanto also do not change from their adjective form
• Examples: Vayamos más rápido; es el sitio peor iluminado
• The adverb that corresponds to bueno is bien and to malo is mal
• Example: el hotel está bien ubicado

DESCRIBE POSSESSIVE FORMS IN SPANISH

• Spanish does not have the 's to express possessioin hat is employed in English
• It uses the preposition de instead
• Example (Tom's book/el libro de Tom; my parents' house/la casa de mis padres)
• In some instances, de is followed by the definite article
• In those cases, the article has to agree in gender and number with the noun that follows
• Examples:(el libro de la niña; el gato de los vecinos)
• For phonetic reasons when de is followed by el (the definite article meaning the), the two words are contracted into del (el libro del niño)
• To inquire about possession, de quién is equivalent to whose (¿de quién es este libro?/whose book is this?)
• In those cases where you know there is more than on possessor, de quiénes is used in the interrogative form
• Example: (¿de quiénes es este libro? Whose book is this?
• In the interrogative form, there is no difference between feminine and masculine

DESCRIBE THE USE OF COMPOUND WORDS, CONTRACTIONS, AND PRONOUNS ADDED TO THE ENDS OF WORDS IN SPANISH

• Spanish compound words usually consist of a verb and a noun together
• While English words tend to have the noun first and then the verb
• Examples: (dishwasher, skyscraper)
• Spanish compound words typically have the verb first and then the noun
• Examples: (lavaplatos, abrelatas, rascacielos)
• Spanish has two standard contractions: the preposition a and the definite article el form the contraction al
• The preposition de and the definite article el form the contraction del
• Examples: Vamos a el partido = vamos al partido; el sombrero de el señor = el sombrero del señor
• When object and reflexive pronoun s are used with infinitive verbs, present participles, and affirmative commands, they are added to the end of the verb to create one word
• See the sections "Pronouns in the imperative mood" and "Position of pronouns when using the present participle and infinitives" in the next sections for examples and details

DESCRIBE DIMINUTIVES IN SPANISH AND THEIR USE

• Diminutives are used to denote smallness or to express affection
• They are usually formed in Spanish by adding the suffix ito at the end of the noun
• If the noun ends in an unaccented vowel, the vowel is dropped (examples: libro/librito; perro/perrito)
• If the noun ends in e, n, or r, a c is added to the suffix making it cito (examples: padre/padrecito; joven/jovencito; mujer/mujercita)
• The suffix has to agree with the gender and number of the noun being modified
• examples: (el camióncito; los collares/collarcitos; la blusa/blusita; las sillas/sillitas
• Other spelling changes that need to bet aken into account are for nouns that have -g or -c in the last syllable
• They have to change to -gu and qu (examples: lago/laguito; Paco/Paquito)

DESCRIBE SOME INSTANCES IN WHICH THE SAME WORD IS USED IN BOTH SPANISH AND IN ENGLISH

• All languages incorporate words and phrases from other languages
• Spanish and English are no exceptions
• English words related to technology have crossed over to a wide range of languages and words like e-mail; clic (click), and DVD
• These words have been absorbed into Spanish
• Conversely, Spanish words have made their way into English
• For some of them there is another English word that can be used as well (examples: fiesta/party, patio/courtyard)
• Some have no equivalent in English (adobe, armadillo, tango)
• Both languages also share the use of some French words (amateur, ballet, boulevard)
• Examples of loan words from Italian are used both in English and Spanish and many include musical terms
• Examples: (aria, cadenza, opera, piano, viola)
• Many of the words borrowed from German are used in philosophy in Spanish and in English
• Examples: (angst, ersatz, gestalt, Geist)

DESCRIBE COGNATES AND PROVIDE SOME COMMON EXAMPLES OF COGNATES IN SPANISH

• Cognates are words in different languages that have the same etymological origin and similar meaning, spelling, and pronunciation
• Some English/Spanish cognates are identical (doctor, terrible, hospital, cruel)
• Some words have minor differences (religion/religión, Canada/Canadá, novel/novela, dentist/dentista, president/presidente, information/información)
• Some other cognates have bigger differences but still have the same root, e.g., (abandon/abandonar, decide/decidir, university/universidad)
• False cognates are words that have some similarities in spelling and pronunciation but do not share the same origins and do not have the same meaning
• Some examples of false cognates are exit/salida; éxito/success; hay/heno; hay/there is; large/grande/ largo/long; pie/pastel; pie/foot; rope/soga; ropa/clothes; embarrassed/avergonzado and embarazada/pregnant

DESCRIBE THE APPLICATION OF CAPITALIZATION IN SPANISH

• Capitalization is not employed in Spanish as frequently as it is in English
• The first word of a sentence is always capitalized
• Proper names of people (Jorge Luis Borges, María), companies (Sony, Chevron) and places (España, Madrid, el río Nilo)
• Abbreviations of personal titles (Sr., Dr.) are capitalized but if the full word is used, it is written in lower case (el señor Aguilar, el doctor Fuentes)
• For titles of books, stories, poems, essays, songs, films, etc., ONLY the first word is capitalized (La odisea, La guerra de las galaxias)
• the days of the week (lunes, viernes) and the months of the year (enero, abril) are not capitalized
• Nationalities (argentino, australiano) and languages (latín, inglés) also are not capitalized

DESCRIBE THE METHOD OF WRITING DATES IN SPANISH

• In Spanish the days of the week and the months of the year are not capitalized unless they are at the beginning of a sentence
• The proper way to write a date is 18 de diciembre de 1948 in contrast to the usual format of December 18, 1948 in English
• However, the form diciembre 18, 1948 has started to appear in Spanish as well
• When using dashes or slashes, the order in NOT the same: in English it is month/date/year
• In Spanish it is day/month/year
• The correct meaning is obvious in some instances
• There is no doubt that 25/12/2018 means December 25, 2018(as there is no 25th month)
• In some cases this difference can be confusing
• 3/7/2018 is July 3, 2018 in Spanish
• March 7, 2018 is in English
• Be aware of this difference when reading and writing

DESCRIBE THE STANDARD WAY TO WRITE NUMBERS IN SPANISH

• The English language uses a period to denote the decimal point in a number and commas every 3 digits (21,097.83)
• Different regions of the Spanish speaking world use different systems of marking numbers
• Sometimes a comma is used to denote he decimals, sometimes a period, and occasionally an apostrophe
• So, the first three digits of π(pi the mathematical symbol) could be written one of the following ways: 3,14/3.14/3'14
• Commas, periods, or spaces can be used every 3 digits
• Therefore, the number ten thousand can be written one of the following ways:
• 10,000/10.000/10'000
• When writing or reading a definite number, the words hundred, thousand, and million in English are always in singular
• In Spanish, the words cien and millón use the singular or the plural form in accordance with the number, while the word mil is always singular (200 = doscientos; 1.000.000 = un millón, 5.000.000 = cinco millones; 3000 = tres mil)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF QUESTION MARKS AND EXCLAMATION MARKS IN SPANISH

• In Spanish, as in English, questions end with the interrogation mark ?, and exclamations end with the exclamation mark !
• But in Spanish, for both types of sentences, an inverted mark is required at the beginning of the sentence
• Therefore, all questions in Spanish begin with ¿, and all exclamations begin with ¡ (examples: ¿Dónde estás?, ¡Estoy aquí!
• Computer keyboards for the English language do not have a key for these symbols, and there are different options you can use to insert them depending on the program that you are using
• A test that requires you to write in Spanish will use a particular user interface for inserting these symbols that you can familiarize yourself with ahead of time by accessing the website for that specific test (refer to the CBT - Computer Based Tutorials for CSET as mentioned in the first couple of flashcards to practice)

EXPLAIN THE RULES FOR THE WRITTEN STRESS OR ACCENT MARK

• The Spanish language uses a written stress or accent mark on vowels to denote exceptions to its stressing rules
• Words with a stress in the last syllable will have a written stress or accent mark if they end in a vowel
• Examples: (mamá, café, así)
• Or if they end in the consonants -n (camión, común, jamón)
• Or the letter -s (jamás, francés, anís)
• For those words stressed in the second-to-last syllable, an accent mark is needed when they end in any consonant
• Examples: (ángel, álbum, cadáver, lápiz) except -n and -s
• for words stressed in the third-to-last syllable, a written stress is always required, regardless of the last letter
• Examples: (apéndice, códigos, diplomático)

DESCRIBE SOME OF THE SPECIAL RULES FOR USING THE WRITTEN STRESS OR ACCENT MARKS IN SPANISH

• There are a few special rules when it comes to the written stress or accent marks in Spanish:
• Written accent marks are only placed on vowels
• One-syllable (monosyllabic) words never have a written accent except when there are two possible different meanings: (el = the; él = he; si = if; sí = yes; tu = your; tú = you; mas = but and más = more)
• A written accent is used when two adjacent vowels that would otherwise form a diphthong are to be pronounced separately
• Example: media vs. hacía
• Adverbs such as cuándo = when, dónde = where, cómo = how, as well as pronouns such as quién = who; qué = what, and cuál = which require an accent mark when used as interrogatives
• This accent mark is not present when the word is not used an an interrogative
• Example:(¿Dónde está el libro?; Yo voy donde mi esposo va)
• Adverbs formed by adding -mente to an adjective that has a written stress keep the accent mark (fácil-fácilmente, cortés-cortésmente)
• When pronouns are added to the end of a verb form, to keep the accent as it was in the infinitive form (Estoy buscándolo, ¡Cepíllate los dientes!)

DESCRIBE SOME SPECIAL CASES FOR THE SPELLING OF CONJUNCTIONS IN SPANISH

• For phonetic reasons, the conjunction y =and) changes to e when the word after the conjunction begins with i or hi
• Examples: (español e inglés, padre e hijo, Susana e Isabel)
• Something similar occurs with the conjunction o = (or) which is changed to a u when the word that follows it begins with o or ho
• Examples: (setenta u ochenta, casas u hoteles, Carlos u Honorio)

EXPLAIN RULES FOR SPELLING CHANGES OCCURRING IN PLURALS AND DERIVATIVE WORDS

• When an e, i, or y is placed next to a c, g, or z that was previously the end of the word or followed by an a, o, or u there is a spelling change primarily to maintain the pronunciation of c, g, or z
• Examples: c changes to qu (buscar: busqué, rico: riquísimo)
• g adds a u (pagar:pagué)
• z changes to c (almorzar: almorcé, lápiz: lápices)

EXPLAIN RULES FOR SPELLING CHANGES OCCURRING IN THE FOLLOW VERB CONJUATIONS:

VERBS ENDING IN -CAR AND VERBS ENDING IN -GAR

• Spelling changes in verbs ending in -CAR
• In Spanish, the letter c has a hard sound like the letter k in English when it is followed by an a(carro), o (colegio), or u (curva) and a soft sound like the c found in English in words such as century and cigar, when it is followed by the vowels e(celoso) or i(cien)
• To keep the hard sound of the letter c found in the infinitive verbs ending in -car (sacar, tocar, buscar), whenever a verb ending places an e or i next to the c, the letter c is replaced by qu (yo saqué, no toques, espero que busquemos)

Spelling changes in verbs ending in -GAR

• When followed by a consonant (regla, negro) or by the vowels a, o, or u(gato, agosto, gusto), the sound of the letter g in Spanish is similar to its hard sound in English words such as good and game
• If the letter g is followed by the vowels e or i(generar, registro), its sound is like the sound of the Spanish j(a strong English h)
• To keep the hard sound of the letter g found in the infinitive of a verb ending in -gar (jugar, pagar, llegar), whenever a verb ending places an e or i next to the g, a u is added after the g
• Examples: yo jugué, ¡no pagues!, espero que lleguen)

EXPLAIN RULES FOR SPELLING CHANGES OCCURRING IN THE FOLLOWING VERB CONJUGATIONS: VERBS ENDING IN -ZAR AND VERBS ENDING IN -CER AND -CIR

SPELLING CHANGES IN VERBS ENDING IN -ZAR

• In Spanish, the letter z is never used before e or i and is typically replaced with a c when a plural ending or a verb ending places an e or i next to the z
• To be consistent with this rule, for those verbs ending in -zar(empezar, alcanzar, utilizar), the z is replaced by a c whenever a verb ending places an e or i next to the z(yo empecé, espero que alcances, ¡no utilicen!)
• Also, because of this rule, there are no verbs ending in -zer(second conjugation) or -zir (third conjugation)

SPELLING CHANGES IN VERBS ENDING IN -CER AND-CIR

• Verbs in Spanish that end in -cer(conocer, parecer, merecer, ofrecer, crecer) or -cir(conducir, lucir, traducir, producir) preceded by a vowel are irregular in the present indicative tense in the first person singular (yo) form
• Since the o hardens the sound of the c, these verbs add a z before the c in the first person present indicative form (yo conozco, yo ofrezco, yo crezco, yo conduzco, yo traduzco, yo produzco)
• The same addition is made in the present subjunctive for for all persons as well as in most of the imperative (mandatos) forms, since in all of these cases an a is being placed next to the c, which changes its sound
• Examples: (que él merezca, que ellos aparezcan, ¡produzcan!, íno conduzcas!)
• The same rules apply to all other verbs derived from those mentioned above (desconocer, desaparecer, aparecer, desmerecer, deslucir)

EXPLAIN RULES FOR SPELLING CHANGES OCCURRING IN THE FOLLOWING VERB CONJUGATIONS: VERBS ENDING IN -GER AND -GIR

• SPELLING CHANGES IN VERBS ENDING IN -GER AND-GIR
• The letter g in Spanish has a hard sound like the same letter in English in words such as: garnet and gray before an a (gaviota), o (govierno), and u (agudo), but a Spanish j sound before e(gerente) and i (agitar)
• In those verbs ending in -ger(escoger, recoger) and -gir(elegir, dirigir), to be consistent and keep the sound soft, whenever a verb ending places an a or o next to the g(the yo form of the present indicative, all forms of the present subjunctive, most forms of the imperative -mandatos), the letter g is replaced by the letter j (yo escojo, quiero que recojan, ¡elija!)

EXPLAIN RULES FOR SPELLING CHANGES OCCURRING IN THE FOLLOWING VERB CONJUGATIONS: VERBS ENDING IN A VOWEL OR IN -ER OR -IR AND VERBS ENDING IN -UIR

CHANGES IN SPELLING FOR VERBS ENDING IN A VOWEL AND -ER OR -IR

• When a verb ends in a vowel followed by -er or -ir, certain spelling changes occur to avoid forming a diphthong or triphthong where there was not one before
• When a verb ending would place three vowels in a row (third person forms of the preterite, present participles), the middle i is changed to a y
• Examples: ellos leyeron, el jugador se cayó, creyendo)
• When a verb ending would place only an i next to the vowel at the end of the verb stem ( first and second person forms of the preterite, past participles), the i receives an accent (creímos, leíste, creído)
• An exception/special case is noted below in the section "Changes in spelling for verbs ending in -uir"

CHANGES IN SPELLING FOR VERBS ENDING IN -UIR

• Verbs of the third conjugation ending in -uir (incluir, huir, construir, contribuir, destruir) have a y added in the present indicative tense (yo incluyo, tú huyes, él construye, ellos contribuyen) before all endings except those beginning with an i (nosotros destruímos)
• Notice that the i carries an accent mark in this situation
• The same rules apply for the preterite and present subjunctive tenses (él construyó, tú contribuíste, que nosotros destruyamos

 DESCRIBE COMMON SYNTAX RULES IN SPANISH

• Both English and Spanish are basically SVO languages; languages in which the more common sentence structure is Subject + Verb + Object (the boy eats bread/El niño come pan)
• English is more structured and allows variations in word order primarily for questions or as a literary or poetic device
• Spanish is more flexible, and it is very common to find sentences where the verb or the object is at the beginning of the sentence (Pedro leyó este libro/Leyó Pedro este libro/Este libro lo leyó Pedro)
• The meaning of the sentence remains basically the same but with some subtle variations on emphasis
• Also, when object pronouns are used o replace an object in Spanish, they are customarily placed before the verb rather than after the verb (Pedro leyó el libro/Pedro lo leyó)
• It is important to note that the subject is frequently omitted in Spanish since the verb ending indicates the subject (Llegamos tarde/We arrived late)

DESCRIBE THE COMMON SYNTAX OF SENTENCES IN THE INTERROGATIVE FORM IN SPANISH

• The structure of sentences denoting interrogation is very similar in English and in Spanish
• If the questions include interrogative adjectives, pronouns and adverbs such as quién, cuál, cómo, etc., the questions begin with those words, for example:
• ¿Quién vino?, ¿Cuál es tu casa?, ¿Cómo estás?
• In all other cases the question will bewgin with the verb followed by the subject
• Example: ¿ Llegaron los niños de la escuela?
• Be aware that many times the subject is omitted (¿Llegaron de la escuela?)
• In their interrogative form, the interrogative adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs mentioned above always have a written stress or accent mark.
• Questions in Spanish require an interrogation mark at the beginning (¿) as well as at the end (?)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF EXCLAMATIONS IN SPANISH

• Exclamations in Spanish can be expressed with qué in a very similar manner as English does with what
• Examples: ¡Qué día tan bonito!/What a beautiful day!) and how (¿Qué bonito!/How beautiful!)
• The exclamatory form is also used to denote a warning (íCuidado!/Careful!), an order (¡No hable!/Don't talk!) and emotions (¡Por fin llegaste!/You finally arrived!) in the same way as the English language does
• As with interrogatives, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs such as qué, cómo, cuánto, etc, have a written stress or accent mark
• In Spanish, all exclamations require an exclamation mark (¡) at the beginning as well as at the end (!)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF ADJECTIVES BEFORE AND AFGTER NOUNS IN SPANISH SYNTAX (1 OF 2 TOTAL)

ADJECTIVES THAT GO AFTER THE NOUN

• In Spanish, descriptive adjectives are usually placed after the noun they modify (la casa blanca, el hombre alto)

ADJECTIVES THAT GO BEFORE THE NOUN

• Some adjectives are placed before the noun they modify. Their categories are:
• Adjectives that denote quantity such as alguno, ambos, bastante, mucho, poco, suficiente, varios
• EXAMPLES :(presentó algunas ideas; ambos estudiantes son alemanes; tengo bastante dinero)
• Adjectives that refer to a number or order such as primero, segundo, cinco, etc.,
• EXAMPLES: (la segunda casa a la derecha, cinco libros)
• Some adjectives that indicate quality such as: bueno, malo, mejor and peor can be placed before or after the noun
• EXAMPLES: buena comida/comida buena; el peor cso/el caso peor)

POSSESSIVE AND DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES

• BUENO, MALO, ALGUNO, NINGUNO, PRINERO, TERCERO, AND GRANDE drop their final -o or -e when placed before a masculine singular noun that they are modifying
• EXAMPLES: (BUEN TRABAJO/TRABAJO BUENO; GRAN ESTADIO/ESTADIO GRANDE)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF ADJECTIVES BEFORE AND AFTER NOUNS IN SPANISH SYNTAX(2 OF 2 TOTAL)

ADJECTIVES BEFORE OR AFTER THE NOUN

• Some adjectives have different meanings depending on whether they are placed before or after the noun they modify
• EXAMPLES AS FOLLOWS ARE:
• La antigua capital/the former capital - La capital antigua/the old capital
• una cierta condición/a certain condition - una condición cierta/a sure condition
• diferentes ideas/various ideas - ideas diferentes/different ideas
• gran universidad/great university -universidad grande/big university
• el mismo jefe/the same boss - el jefe mismo/the boss himself
• pobre hombre/unfortunate - hombre pobre/destitute man
• un simple carpintero/just a carpenter - un carpintero simple/ a simple carpinter
• la única oportunidad/the only opportunity - la oportunidad única/the unique opportunity
• mi viejo amigo/my longtime friend - mi amigo viejo/my elderly friend

DESCRIBE THE USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES IN SPANISH SYNTAX (1 OF 2 TOTAL)

• In Spanish, possessive adjectives refer to the possessor but, like all adjectives, must agree in gender and number with the noun they modify
• EXAMPLES: MI HIJO, MIS HIJOS, NUESTRA CASA, NUESTRAS CASAS
• Note that Spanish uses su/sus for the third person regardless of the gender and number of the possessor
• EXAMPLES:( her son-su hijo; their house - su casa; her books - sus libros; its food - su comida)
• Su/sus is also used for the formal second person singular (you brought your book/usted trajo su libro) and for the formal second person plural (you all drink your coffee/ustedes toman su café)

CHART OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

MASCULINE FEMININE MASC FEM

SINGULAR SINGULAR PLURAL PLUR

MY MI MI MIS MIS

YOUR (tú) TU TU TUS TUS

HIS/HER/

ITS/YOUR

(Usted) SU SU SUS SUS

OUR nuestro nuestra nuestros nuestras

YOUR

(pl.inf

vosotros) vuestro vuestra vuestros vuestras

THEIR/ SU SU SUS SUS

YOUR

(PL. FORM)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES IN SPANISH SYNTAX (2 OF 2 TOTAL)

• In Spanish there are three possible demonstrative adjectives: este, ese, aquel, compared to the two that exist in English (this, that)
• Este refers to anything close
• Ese denotes a certain distance
• Aquel indicates farther away or over there
• Demonstrative adjectives, like all adjectives in Spanish, have to agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify
• EXAMPLES: (este libro/this book; aquella casa/the house over there/esos gatos/those cats; estas sillas/these chairs)
• The different forms of the demonstrative adjectives can be found in the chart below:

MASC SING FEM SING MASC/PL FEM/PL

ESTE ESTA ESTOS ESTAS

ESE ESA ESOS ESAS

AQUEL AQUELLA AQUELLOS AQUELLAS

DESCRIBE THE USE OF VERBS IN THE INFINITIVE FORM IN SPANISH

• Verbs can be marked for number, person, tense, mood, and aspect in Spanish

INFINITIVE FORM

• In English, the infinitive form of a verb is denoted by the particle to that precedes it (to walk, to cry, to run)
• In Spanish, the infinitive forms of verbs are denoted by the endings -ar,(caminar, llorar, estar) -er,
• ( correr, vender, ser) or -ir(escribir, decir)
• These can be called "first, second, and third conjugations", or -ar. -er, or -ir verbs"
• ALL verbs in Spanish belong to one of these three groups
• Each group has its own forms for each tense which apply to all regular verbs that belong to that particular conjugation or "group"
• Conjugated forms for irregular verbs vary from group to group and even within the same conjugation

INDICATIVE MOOD

• The indicative mood communicates objective statements.
• The present, preterite, imperfect, future, progressive, and perfect tenses are considered indicative

PRESENT INDICATIVE FORMATION

• Drop the infinitive ending of the verb and use the endings in the table below to form the present of the indicative for all REGULAR verbs of the three conjugations

Personal

Pronouns -AR -ER -IR

yo -o -o -o

tú -as -es -es

él -a -e -e

Nosotros -amos -emos -imos

Vosotros -áis - éis - ís

ellos -an -en -en

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF VERB CONJUGATIONS FOR VERBS ENDING IN -AR, -ER, -IR

-AR VERBS (e.g., hablar, cantar, estudiar)

Yo hablo (I talk)

Tú hablas (You talk - impersonal)

él habla (He talks)

Nosotros hablamos (We talk)

Vosotros habláis (You all talk)(Pl. inf)

Ellos hablan (They talk)

-ER VERBS (e.g., comer, correr, leer)

Yo como (I eat)

Tú comes (You eat - imp)

él come (He eats)

Nosotros comemos (We eat)

Vosotros coméis (You all eat)

Ellos comen (They eat)

-IR VERBS (e.g., abrir, asistir, permitir)

Yo abro (I open)

tú abres (You open - imp)

él abre (He opens)

Nosotros abrimos (We open)

Vosotros abrís (You all open)

Ellos abren (They open)

PROVIDE EXAMPLES FOR PRESENT INDICATIVE VERBS WITH IRREGULAR FIRST-PERSON SINGULAR FORMS

• The following verbs are irregular in the first person singular of the present indicative but follow the regular patterns for the other forms of the present indicative

VERB FIRST PERSON SINGULAR FORM

caer caigo

dar doy

hacer hago

poner pongo

saber sé

salir salgo

traer traigo

valer valgo

ver veo

PROVIDE EXAMPLES FOR VERBS THAT HAVE BOTH AN IRREGULAR FIRST-PERSON SINGULAR FORM AND STEM CHANGES IN OTHER FORMS

• Some verbs have both an irregular first-person singular form and stem changes or spelling changes in other forms of the verb, as below:

tener (e-ie)

Yo tengo Nosotros tenemos

tú tienes Vosotros tenéis

él tiene Ellos tienen

venir (e-ie)

Yo vengo Nosotros venimos

tú vienes Vosotros venís

él viene Ellos vienen

decir (e-i)

Yo digo Nosotros decimos

tú dices Vosotros decís

él dice Ellos dicen

oír (added y)

Yo oigo Nosotros oímos

tú oyes Vosotros oís

él oye Ellos oyen

PROVIDE EXAMPLES FOR VERBS WITH A STEM CHANGE IN THE PRESENT INDICATIVE FORM

• There are tree groups of verbs that have a stem change in all singular forms and the third-person plural form of the verb in the present indicative. The endings remain regular

e changes to ie (e.g, querer, pensar, perder, empezar, preferir, despertarse)

Yo quiero Nosotros queremos

tú quieres Vosotros queréis

él quiere Ellos quieren

e changes to i (e.g., pedir, vestirse, servir, repetir)

Yo pido Nosotros pedimos

tú pides Vosotros pedís

él pide Ellos piden

o changes to ue (e.g., dormir, encontrar, poder, contar) jugar changes u to ue

Yo duermo Nosotros dormimos

tú duermes Vosotros dormís

él duerme Ellos duermen

EXPLAIN HOW TO FORM THE PRETERITE INDICATIVE FORM OF VERBS ENING IN -AR, ER, -IR

Drop the infinitive ending of the verb and use the endings in the table below to form the preterite indicative for all REGULAR verbs of the three conjugations

PERSONAL

PRONOUNS -AR -ER -IR

Yo -é -í -í

Tú -aste -iste -iste

él -ó -ió -ió

Nosotros -amos -imos -imos

Vosotros -asteis -isteis -isteis

ellos -aron -ieron -ieron

PROVIDE SOME EXAMPLES OF FORMING THE PRETERITE INDICATIVE FOR VERBS ENDINGS IN -AR, -ER, -IR

-AR VERBS (E.G., CAMINAR, REGRESAR, LLAMAR

Yo caminé (I walked)

Tú caminaste (you walked)

él caminó (he walked)

Nosotros caminamos (we walked)

Vosotros caminasteis (you all walked)

ellos caminaron (they walked)

-ER VERBS (E.G., APRENDER, BEBER, DEPENDER)

Yo bebí (I drank)

tú bebiste (you drank)

él bebió (he drank)

Nosotros bebimos (we drank)

Vosotros bebisteis (you all drank)

ellos bebieron (they drank)

-IR VERBS (E.G., VIVIR, ESCRIBIR, RECIBIR)

Yo viví (I lived)

tú viviste (you lived)

él vivió (he lived)

Nosotros vivimos (we lived)

Vosotros vivisteis (you all lived)

ellos vivieron (they lived)

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF PRETERITE VERBS THAT HAVE A STEM CHANGE

• Stem changing verbs that end in -ar and -er have no stem change in the preterite tense

Despertar:

yo desperté Nosotros despertamos

tú despertaste Vosotros despertasteis

él despertó Ellos despertaron

PERDER

Yo perdí Nosotros perdimos

tú perdiste Vosotros perdisteis

él perdió Ellos perdieron

Stem changing verbs that end in -ir have a stem change in the third person forms of the preterite, as follows:

r

DORMIR - O CHANGES TO U

Yo dormí Nosotros dormimos

tú dormiste Vosotros dormisteis

él durmió Ellos durmieron

PREFERIR - E CHANGES TO I

Yo preferí Nosotros preferimos

tú preferiste Vosotros preferisteis

él prefirió Ellos prefirieron

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF VERBS THAT ARE IRREGULAR IN THE PRETERITE FORM

The following verbs have irregular STEMS in the preterite. To create their forms in the preterite, use the irregular stem and add the following irregular endings to them.

INFINITVE PRETERITE STEM

Andar Anduv-

Estar Estuv-

Tener Tuv-

Caber Cup-

Haber Hub-

Poder Pud-

Poner Pus-

Saber Sup-

Querer Quis-

Venir Vin-

ENDINGS FOR THESE VERBS IN THE PRETERITE:

Yo -e

Tú -iste

él -o

Nosotros -imos

Vosotros -isteis

Ellos -ieron

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF VERBS THAT HAVE IRREGULAR STEMS IN THE PRETERITE FORM ENDING IN -J

• The following verbs have irregular stems in the preterite that end in -j
• To create their preterite forms, use the same endings as above (on the previous card), but without the -i in the third person plus form

CONDUCIR CONDUJ-

DECIR DIJ-

PRODUCIR PRODUJ-

TRAER TRAJ-

ENDINGS FOR THESE VERBS ONCE YOU HAVE ADDED THE -J:

Yo -e

Tú -iste

él -o

Nosotros -imos

Vosotros -isteis

Ellos - eron

PROVIDE CONJUGATION OF THE FOLLOWING IRREGULAR VERBS IN THE PRETERITE: SER, IR, HACER, DAR, VER

The following verbs are irregular in the preterite. Their conjugations are as follows:

SER AND IR SHARE THE SAME FORMS IN THE PRETERITE

Yo fui Nosotros fuimos

tú fuiste Vosotros fuisteis

él fue ellos fueron

HACER

Yo hice Nosotros hicimos

tú hiciste Vosotros hicisteis

él hizo Ellos hicieron

DAR

Yo di Nosotros dimos

tú diste Vosotros disteis

él dio Ellos dieron

VER

Yo vi Nosotros vimos

tú viste Vosotros visteis

él vio Ellos vieron

EXPLAIN THE PURPOSE OF THE PRETERITE -THE DEFINITE PAST TENSE

• The preterite is used to express:
• One-time actions in the past (ayer yo me lastimé el codo; el año pasado fuimos a Chile)
• A sequence or chain of events in the past (primero se despertó y entonces se duchó y se vistió)
• An action, emotion, or condition that is considered completed (me puse muy triste cuando perdimos)
• Actions that interrupt another action in progress, or actions that are completed while another action continues in the background (cuando montaban en bicicleta, Juan se cayó; mientras mi mamá lavaba los platos, yo me acosté)

DESCRIBE THE FORMATION OF THE IMPERFECT INDICATIVE FORM

• To form the IMPERFECT (THE CONTINUOUS OR REPETITIVE PAST TENSE), drop the infinitive ending of the verb and use the endings in the table below to form the imperfect indicative for all REGULAR verbs of the three conjugations:

PERSONAL

PRONOUNS -AR -ER -IR

Yo -aba -ía -ía

Tú -abas -ías -ías

él -aba -ía -ía

Nosotros -ábamos -íamos -íamos

Vosotros -abais - íais -íais

Ellos -aban -ían -ían

• The imperfect can be translated with the English simple past (I traveled), but also with the verb phrases such as "I used to travel", I would travel", or I was traveling"
• In terms of defining repetitive or continuous past activities we think of the imperfect as the description of the "way things used to be"
• There are certain words/context cues that lend themselves to the use of the imperfect (siempre, todos los días, cada año, generalmente, etc.)

PROVIDE SOME EXAMPLES OF VERBS IN THE IMPERFECT INDICATIVE FORM ENDING IN -AR

-AR VERBS (E.G., VIAJAR, REGRESAR, CEPILLAR)

Yo viajaba (I traveled/used to travel/would travel/was traveling)

Tú viajabas (You traveled/used to travel/would travel/were traveling)

él viajaba (He traveled/used to travel/would travel/was traveling)

Nosotros viajábamos (We traveled/used to ravel/would travel/were traveling)

Vosotros viajabais (You all traveled/used to travel/would travel/were traveling)

Ellos viajaban (They traveled/used to travel/would travel/were traveling

PROVIDE SOME EXAMPLES OF VERBS IN THE IMPERFECT INDICATIVE FORM ENDING IN -ER

-ER VERBS (e.g., VENDER, RESPONDER, COMPRENDER)

VENDER: (sold, used to sell, would sell, was selling)

yo vendía

tú vendías

él vendía

Nosotros vendíamos]

Vosotros vendíais

Ellos vendían

PROVIDE SOME EXAMPLES OF VERBS IN THE IMPERFECT INDICATIVE FORM ENDING IN -IR

• -IR VERBS (e.g., DESCRIBIR, DISCUTIR)
• DISCUTIR: TO DISCUSS

The concept of the imperfect remains the same with each verb (I discussed/used to discuss/would discuss/was discussing)

Yo discutía

Tú discutías

él discutía

Nosotros discutíamos

Vosotros discutíais

Ellos discutían

THERE ARE NO SPELL CHANGES IN THE IMPERFECT INDICATIVE

PROVIDE THE CONJUGATION FOR THE IRREGULAR VERBS SER, IR, AND VER IN THE IMPERFECT INDICATIVE

THERE ARE THREE VERBS WITH IRREGULAR FORMS IN THE IMPERFECT INDICATIVE

SER:

Yo era Nosotros éramos

Tú eras Vosotros erais

él era ellos eran

IR:

Yo iba Nosotros íbamos

Tú ibas Vosotros ibais

él iba Ellos iban

VER:

Yo veía Nosotros veíamos

Tú veías Vosotros veíais

él veía Ellos veían

DESCRIBE THE PURPOSE OF THE IMPERFECT

The imperfect is used to express:

• habitual actions in the past (cuando era niño, siempre jugaba en el parque; íbamos de vacaciones a Canadá cada verano)
• age in the past (tenía 9 años cuando conocí a Pedro; ¿cuántos años tenías cuando entraste a la escuela?)
• time in the past(¿qué hora era cuando empezó el partido?; eran las nueve de la noche cuando llegué a casa)
• physical and emotional characteristics that are considered permanent in the past (Ana era muy alta de niña; mi tío era un hombre muy simpático)
• continuous actions interrupted by another action in the past (yo leía una novela cuando sonó el teléfono; Juan dormía cuando empezó el incendio

AN ACRONYM TO REMEBER THE USES OF THE IMPERFECT:

A - Age

W - Weather

E - Emotions

T - Time

L - Location

A - Attitude (Ser, Creer, Pensar, Poder y verbos similares)

P - Physical Characteristics (Ser)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF A GERUND OR PRESENT PARTICIPLE; ITS FORMATION AND USAGE

• The gerund, or present participle (in English the -ing form of a verb), is formed in Spanish by dropping the infinitive ending of the verb and adding -ando for -ar verbs (caminar/caminando; trabajar/trabajando), and -iendo for -er and -ir verbs (comer/comiendo, correr/corriendo; salir/saliendo; recibir/recibiendo)

• Verbs that end with a vowel followed by -er or -ir have a spelling change in the gerund: creer/creyendo
• -er and ir verbs that stem change in the present tense also have a spelling change in the gerund:
• e changes to i; o changes to u
• Examples: dormir/durmiendo; pedir/pidiendo

The gerund is used similarly in Spanish and English

DESCRIBE THE FORMATION AND USES OF PROGRESSIVE TENSES

• Progressive tenses use the verb estar as an anchor or auxiliary verb with the gerund of the main verb
• Yo estoy comiendo: I am eating
• Tú estabas durmiendo: you were sleeping
• él está estudiando: he is studying
• Nosotros estábamos viniendo: we were coming
• Vosotros estáis trabajando: you all were working
• ellos estaban pintando: they were painting

The progressive tenses are used to denote an action that is or was in progress (yo estaba durmiendo/I was sleeping; nosotros estamos mirando/we are watching)

Progressive tenses are never used in reference to the future as the English "going to"

For those cases, Spanish uses the future tense or the simple future: ir a + the infinitive of the main verb

Example: (I am going to do my homework/Voy a hacer mi tarea; they are going to finish the book/ellos van a terminar el libro)

DESCRIBE THE FORMATION AND USE OF PAST PARTICIPLES

• To form the past participle of -ar verbs, drop the -ar and add -ado (hablar/hablado)
• For -er and -ir verbs, drop the -er and -ir and add -ido(comer/comido, dormir/dormido)
• -er and -ir verbs that have an a, e, or o before the ending of the infinitive require a written accent in their past participles (caer/caído; sonreír/sonreído; oír/oído)

Several verbs have irregular past participles, as follows:

Infinitive Verb Past Participle

abrir abierto

cubrir cubierto

decir dicho

escribir escrito

hacer hecho

imprimir impreso

morir muerto

poner puesto

romper roto

volver vuelto

ver visto

resolver resuelto

Past participles can be used as adjectives. When used as such, the past participle has to agree in gender and number with the noun it modifies

(e.g., librería cerrada, consultorio cerrado, tiendas cerradas, edificios cerrados)

Past participles are also used in the perfect tenses

DESCRIBE THE FORMS AND USES OF THE PERFECT TENSES

The present perfect is used to denote an action that has been completed in the recent past(yo he leído este libro/I have read this book) or to describe a past action that continues into the present time (hemos vivido aquí muchos años/We have lived here many years)

The past perfect of the indicative is used to denote an action in the past that was completed before a second action in the past(cuando me desperté, Marta ya había llegado/When I woke up, Marta had already arrived)

The future perfect is used to denote an action that will be completed in the future before a certain time or another action in the future occurs (me habré graduado antes de ir de vacaciones/I will have graduated before going on vacation)

The conditional perfect is used to denote an action that would have been completed in the past under certain conditions(ella le habría dicho la verdad/she would have told him the truth)

DESCRIBE THE USE AND FORMATION OF THE PERFECT TENSES AND PROVIDE A CONJUGATION FOR THE AUXILIARY VERB HABER

• The perfect tenses are formed with a form of the auxiliary verb haber and the past participle of a verb

HABER:

Present Indicative: yo he; tú has; él ha; nosotros hemos; vosotros habéis; ellos han

Imperfect Indicative: yo había; tú habías; él había; nosotros habíamos; vosotros habíais; ellos habían

Preterite Indicative: yo hube; tú hubiste; él hubo; nosotros hubimos; vosotros hubisteis; ellos hubieron

Future Indicative: yo habré; tú habrás; él habrá; nosotros habremos; vosotros habréis; ellos habrán

Conditional: yo habría; tú habrías; él habría; nosotros habríamos; vosotros habríais; ellos habrían

Present Subjunctive: yo haya; tú hayas; él haya; nosotros hayamos; vosotros hayáis; ellos hayan

Imperfect Subjunctive: yo hubiera; tú hubieras; él hubiera; nosotros hubiéramos; vosotros hubierais; ellos hubieran

Imperfect Subjunctive (España): yo hubiese; tú hubieses; él hubiese; nosotros hubiésemos; vosotros hubieseis; ellos hubiesen

DESCRIBE THE FORMATION OF THE FUTURE INDICATIVE FORM

To form the future indicative of all REGULAR verbs, add the endings shown in the table below to the infinitive, regardless of the conjugation, - -ar, -er, or- ir

PERSONAL

PRONOUNS FUTURE ENDINGS

Yo -é

Tú -ás

él -á

Nosotros -emos

vosotros -éis

ellos -án

PROVDE SOME EXAMPLES FOR THE FUTURE INDICATIVE FORM IN VERBS ENDING IN -ar, -er, and -ir

-ar verbs (e.g., hablar, caminar, regresar)

yo hablaré (I will talk)

tú hablarás (you will talk)

él hablará (he will talk)

Nosotros hablaremos (we will talk)

Vosotros hablaréis (you all will talk)

ellos hablarán (they will talk)

-ER VERBS (e.g., comer, aprender, correr)

yo comeré (I will eat)

tú comerás (you will eat)

él comerá (he will eat)

Nosotros comeremos (we will eat)

Vosotros comeréis (you all will eat)

ellos comerán (they will eat)

-IR VERBS (e.g., escribir, vivir, describir)

Yo escribiré (I will write)

Tú escribirás (you will write)

él escribirá (he will write)

Nosotros escribiremos (we will write)

Vosotros escribiréis (you all will write)

ellos escribirán (they will write)

DESCRIBE THE FUTURE FORM OF VERBS USING IRREGULAR STEMS AND SHOW EXAMPLE OF TENER

The following verbs use irregular stems in the future, with the same regular future endings shown in the previous card:

INFINITIVE IRREGULAR STEMS

decir dir-

haber habr-

hacer har-

poder podr-

poner pondr-

querer querr-

saber sabr-

salir saldr-

tener tendr-

venir vendr-

valer valdr-

e.g, tener in future indicative

yo tendré (I will have)

tú tendrás (you will have

él tendrá (he will have)

Nosotros tendremos (we will have)

Vosotros tendréis (you all will have)

ellos tendrán (they will have)

DESCRIBE THE FORM AND FUNCTION OF THE CONDITIONAL IN SPANISH

The conditional in Spanish is used in the same way the conditional is used in English

• with the subjunctive in true "conditional if" clauses (e.g., si you fuera Juan, o iría a la fiesta/if I were Juan I wouldn't go to the party; si lloviera, el jardín no se vería tan feo/if it rained, the garden wouldn't look that ugly)

in indirect speech, when the main verb is in the past and the second verb denotes a future action in the past

(e.g., Juan dijo que hablarí con ella/Juan said he would talk with her; Pedro me informó que iría al cine/Pedro informed me that he would go to the movies)

• To form the conditional of all REGULAR verbs, add the following endings shown below to the INFINITVE of the verb regardless of the conjugation, -AR, -ER, -IR

PERSONAL PRONOUN CONDITIONAL ENDING

yo -ía

tú -ías

él -ía

Nosotros -íamos

Vosotros -íais

ellos -ían

PROVIUDE SOME EXAMPLES OF THE CONDITIONAL FORM OF VERBS ENDING IN -AR, -ER, AND -IR

-AR VERBS (e.g., hablar, caminar, regresar)

Yo hablaría (I would talk)

Tú hablarías (you would talk)

él hablaría (he would talk)

Nosotros hablaríamos (we would talk)

Vosotros hablaríais (you all would talk)

ellos hablarían (they would talk)

-ER VERBS (e.g., comer, aprender, correr)

yo comería (I would eat)

tú comerías (you would eat)

él comería (he would eat)

Nosotros comeríamos (we would eat)

Vosotros comeríais (you all would eat)

Ellos comerían (they would eat)

-IR VERBS (e.g., escribir, vivir, describir)

yo escribiría (I would write)

tú escribirías (you would write)

él escribiría (he would write)

Nosotros escribiríamos (we would write)

Vosotros escribiríais (you all would write)

ellos escribirían (they would write)

PROVIDE SOME EXAMPLES OF VERBS USING IRREGULAR STEMS IN THE CONDITIONAL FORM

The following verbs use irregular stems in the conditional, with the same regular conditional endings

Notice these are the same irregular stems that are used in the future indicative:

INFINITIVE VERBS IRREGULAR STEM

DECIR DIR-

HABER HABR-

HACER HAR-

PODER PODR-

PONER PONDR-

QUERER QUERR-

SABER SABR-

SALIR SALDR-

TENER TENDR-

VENIR VENDR-

VALER VALDR-

EXAMPLE OF TENER IN CONDITIONAL:

yo tendría (I would have)

tú tendrías (you would have)

él tendría (he would have)

Nosotros tendríamos (we would have)

Vosotros tendríais (you all would have)

ellos tendrían (they would have)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE FORM

The subjunctive is used in subordinate clauses introduced by que to express:

• a wish (quiero que Juan venga a la fiesta)
• uncertainty or doubt (es probable que María se case con Juan)
• a command (dígale al chofer que esté aquí a las seis)
• an emotion (es una lástima que ustedes no puedan venir a visitarnos)
• preference or need (es mejor que te pongas un abrigo)
• approval/disapproval (está bien que te vistas de negro para el funeral)

The subjunctive is also used with adverbial clauses introduced by conjunctions

AN ACRONYM TO REMEMBER THE USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE:

WISHES, WANTS

EMOTIONS

IMPERSONAL EXPRESSIONS

REQUESTS, REQUIREMENTS, RECOMMENDATIONS

DEMANDS, DENIALS, DOUBTS

ORDERS

SUGGESTIONS

DESCRIBE CONJUNCTIONS THAT SOMETIMES REQUIRE THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE

Some conjunctions such as aunque, como, donde, de manera que, de modo que, según, and mientras, when used to express the opinion of the speakers, uncertainty, or a conjecture, require the use of the subjunctive modd.

In all other cases, they are followed by the indicative tense.

Examples:

• aunque tengamos el dinero, no vamos a comprar un auto nuevo (even if we have the money - we are not sure that we do - we are not going to buy a new car

Comemos donde tú quieras/we'll eat where you want - but we do not know where you want to eat

DESCRIBE CONJUNCTIONS THAT ALWAYS REQUIRE A VERB IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE AND PROVIDE EXAMPLES:

The conjunctions antes (de) que, para que, sin que, a fin de que, a menos que, con tal (de) que, and en caso de que are ALWAYS FOLLOWED BY A VERB N THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

EXAMPLES:

• termina el trabajo antes de que el jefe te lo pida
• voy a visitarte para que podamos hablar
• hicimos el trabajo sin que ella se diera cuenta
• apagué la televisión a fin de que pudieras estudiar
• a menos que tengas otra idea, vayamos al cine
• con tal de que vengas, no me importa la hora
• en case de que el plomero llegue, aquí dejo el dinero para pagarle

EXPLAIN COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND THEIR RELATION TO THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

The compound relative pronouns quienquiera(whoever), cualquiera (whatever/whichever), and dondequiera(wherever) are always followed by que and then the verb is in the subjunctive mode

examples:

• este libro es útil para quienqjuiera que lo lea(this book is useful to whoever reads it)
• cualquiera que sea la causa, el resultado será el mismo/whatever the cause is, ther esult will be the same
• dondequiera que él vaya, lo encontraremos/wherever he goes we will find him

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF REGULAR VERBS

To form the present subjunctive of REGULAR verbs, take the first person singular of the present indicative (YO), drop the -o, and add the endings shown in the chart below:

PERSONAL

PRONOUNS -AR -ER/-IR

yo -e -a

tú -es -as

él -e -a

Nosotros -emos -amos

Vosotros -éis -áis

ellos -en -an

EXAMPLES:

-AR VERBS (e.g., hablar, caminar, regresar)

Yo camine Nosotros caminemos

tú camines Vosotros caminéis

él camine Ellos caminen

-ER AND IR VERBS(e.g.m comer, correr, escribir)

Yo corra Nosotros corramos

tú corras Vosotros corráis

él corra Ellos corran

EXPLAIN RULES OF IRREGULARITIES IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS AS THEY RELATE TO THE PRESENT INDICATIVE FORM

Verbs that have an irregular YO form in the present indicative will have the same irregularities in all the subjunctive forms (e.g., él tenga)

Verbs that end with -car, -gar, and -zar

Verbs with a stem change in the present indicative also have a stem change in the present subjunctive

-AR and -ER verbs follow the same pattern as the present indicative

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF IRREGULARITIES IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS OF ERBS ENDING IN -AR, -ER, AND -IR - stem changing verbs

--AR VERBS (e.g., cerrar, almorzar, contar)

Yo cierre Nosotros cerremos

tú cierres Vosotros cerréis

él cierre ellos cierren

-ER VERBS (e.g., poder, volver, llover)

Yo pueda Nosotros podamos

tú puedas Vosotros podáis

él pueda ellos puedan

-IR verbs with a stem change in the present indicative have the same changes in the present subjunctive, but also have a change in the nosotros and vosotros forms: o changes to u and e changes to i, as shown below

PREFERIR:

yo prefiera Nosotros prefiramos

tú prefieras Vosotros prefiráis

él prefiera ellos prefieran

DORMIR:

yo duerma Nosotros durmamos

tú duermas Vosotros durmáis

él duerma ellos duerman

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF VERBS THAT ARE IRREGULAR IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE, INCLUDING DAR, ESTAR, IR, SABER, AND SER, AS SHOWN BELOW:

DAR:

yo dé Nosotros demos

tú des Vosotros deis

él dé Ellos den

ESTAR:

yo esté Nosotros estemos

tú estés Vosotros estéis

él esté ellos estén

IR:

yo vaya Nosotros vayamos

tú vayas Vosotros vayáis

él vaya Ellos vayan

SABER:

yo sepa Nosotros sepamos

tú sepas Vosotros sepáis

él sepa ellos sepan

SER:

yo sea Nosotros seamos

tú seas Vosotros seáis

él sea ellos sean

DESCRIBE THE USE OF THE IMPERFECT FORM OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF REGULAR VERBS:

To form the imperfect of the subjunctive of regular verbs, take the third person plural of the preterite indicative (e.g., ellos hablaron, ellos comieron), drop -ron, and add the endings shown below.

This pattern holds true for all verbs that have irregular forms in the preterite

The nosotros form will carry an accent on the vowel before the -ramos ending

PERSONAL

PRONOUN AR/ER/IR

yo -ra

tú -ras

él -ra

Nosotros -ramos

Vosotros -rais

ellos -ran

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS OF REGULAR VERBS INCLUDING VERBS ENDING IN -AR, -ER, AND -IR

-AR VERBS (e.g., hablar, caminar, regresar)

yo caminara Nosotros camináramos

tú caminaras Vosotros caminarais

él caminara Ellos caminaran

-ER AND -IR VERBS (e.g., comer, correr, describir)

yo comiera Nosotros comiéramos

tú comieras Vosotros comierais

él comiera ellos comieran

Verbs with irregular preterite forms: (e.g., ir, dar, poder)

yo fuera Nosotros fuéramos

tú fueras Vosotros fuerais

él fuera ellos fueran

DESCRIBE THE IMPERATIVE MOOD AND THE INFORMAL COMMANDS AS USED IN SPANISH

IMPERATIVE MOOD:

The imperative mood is used to express commands, requests, or instructions. In Spanish, commands are marked for formality(informal or tú commands and formal or usted commands) and number

Informal commands have different forms depending on whether the command being given is affirmative (do it!) or negative (don't do it!

INFORMAL COMMANDS:

Affirmative commands for the informal second person singular (salta más alto/jump higher) are formed with the present indicative conjugation of the third person singular (él salta)

Affirmative informal second person plural commands are formed by removing -r from the infinitive and adding -d (Saltad más alto) This form is RARELY used in Latin America

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE INFORMAL COMMANDS

Negative informal commands are formed using the second-person singular of the present subjunctive (no hables tan fuerte/don't talk so loudly; no comáis tanto/don't eat so much) NO is always placed before the command. Refer to the chart below to illustrate these changes:

VERB Singular Plural

Affirm/Negative Affirm/Neg

hablar habla/no hables hablad/no habléis

comer come/no comas comed/no comáis

escribir escribe/no escribas escribed/no escri-

báis

dormir duerme/no duermas dormid/no dur-

máis

poner pon/no pongas poned/no pong-

áis

Some verbs have irregular informal singular affirmative commands, as shown below:

VERB tú COMMANDS

decir di

hacer haz

ir ve

poner pon

salir sal

ser sé

tener ten

venir ven

valer val

DESCRIBE FORMAL COMMANDS IN SPANISH AND PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF THEM

Formal commands do not have different affirmative/negative forms other than adding "no" before the command.

Commands for the formal second person singular (salte más alto/jump higher) are formed with the present subjunctive of the third person singular (él salte)

Commands for the formal second personal plural (salten más alto/jump higher) are formed with the present subjunctive of the third personal plural( ellos salten)

Review the table below for examples:

VERB SINGULAR PLURAL

AFFIRM/NEG AFFIRM/NEG

hablar hable / no hable hablen/no hablen

comer come/no coma coman/no coman

escribir escriba/no escriba escriban/no escriban

dormir duerma/no duerma duerman/no duer-

man

poner ponga/no ponga pongan/no pongan

When needed, object and reflexive pronouns are added at the end of the affirmative commands (llámame más tarde/call me later), póngase los zapatos/put on your shoes)

Be aware that the addition of the pronoun changes the syllabic structure of the word and requires a written accent mark or stress mark.

Negative commands place object and reflexive pronouns as a separate word between no and the verb (no me llames esta noche/don't call me tonight; no se preocupen/don't worry)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF THE VERB IR AND PROVIDE ITS CONJUGATIONS

The verb IR is used as an auxiliary verb in Spanish similarly to the expression "going to" in English in forming the continuous tenses (voy a comer a las dos; ellos iban a completar la tarea a la noche) The verb IR is extremely irregular. Refer to the table below for its conjugations for the simple tenses of the indicative:

PERSONAL

PRONOUNS PRESENT IMPERFECT PRETERITE

YO VOY IBA FUI

Tú VAS IBAS FUISTE

él VA IBA FUE

Nosotros VAMOS íBAMOS FUIMOS

Vosotros VAIS IBAIS FUISTEIS

ellos VAN IBAN FUERON

EXPLAIN DEFINITE ARTICLES AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES AS USED IN SPANISH

DEFINITE ARTICLE

In English, there is only one definite article: the

By contrast, Spanish has different forms that denote number and gender:

Singular Plural

MASCULINE el los

FEMININE la las

The definite article must always be in agreement in number and gender with the the noun it precedes (el libro, la revista, los cigarros, las zanahorias)

The definite article el does NOT have a written accent

When written with a stress mark, the words has a different meaning (él = he)

INDEFINITE ARTICLE:

The equivalent of the English indefinite article a/an and its plural form some/a a few in Spanish is un. It changes to agree in gender and number with the noun it precedes (un libro, una revista, unos libros, unas revistas) Refer to the chart below:

SINGULAR PLURAL

MASCULINE UN UNOS

FEMININE UNA UNAS

The use of the indefinite article is very similar in both languages, although there are some differences. In general, when talking about religion and profession, there is no need for an indefinite article in Spanish (Pedro es católico/Pedro is a Catholic; Juan es médico/Juan is a doctor) unless an adjective also modifies the noun (Pedro es un católico devoto/Pedro is a devout Catholico; Juan es un médico excelente/Juan is an excellent doctor)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF SUBJECT PRONOUNS AND PROVIDE EXAMPLES

Subject Pronouns Singular Plural

1st person yo: I nosotros(as): we

2nd person informal tú: you vosotros(as)you all

2nd person formal usted: you ustedes: you all

3rd person él : he ellos (as): they

ella: she

Subject pronouns identify the person (s) doing the action in a sentence. Subject pronouns in Spanish are frequently left out, as the verb ending often identifies who is doing the action

The vosotros form is primarily used in Spain

the feminine plural pronouns are only used when the group is comprised of all females (ellas van de compras/the group of females goes shopping);

A mixed group uses the masculine form (ellos estudian/the group of males and females studies)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF DIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS AND PROVIDE EXAMPLES

DIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL

1st person me: me nos: us

2nd person inf. te: you os: you all

2nd person form. lo: you /masc los: you all /masc

la: you/fem las: you all/fem

3rd person lo: him/it/masc los: them/mas

la: her/it/fem las: them/fem

Direct object pronouns replace the recipient of the action. They are placed directly before the conjugated verb or attached to the end of present participles and infinitives

When used to replace an impersonal noun, they must agree with the number and grammatical gender of the noun they are replacing

EXAMPLES:

• ¿Necesitas el libro? Sí, lo necesito. Do you need the book? Yes, I need it
• ¿Vas a traer las flores? Sí, voy a traerlas/Sí, las voy a traer. Are you going to bring the flowers? Yes, I'll bring them

DESCRIBE THE USE OF INDIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS AND PROVIDE EXAMPLES

• INDIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS:

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL

1st person me: to/for me nos: to/for us

2nd pers.inf. te: to/for you os: to/for you all

2nd pers.form. le: to/for you les: to/for you all

3rd person le: to/for him/her/it les:to/for them

Indirect object pronouns answer the question "to whom?" or "for whom?" and usually indicate the recipient(s) of the direct object

They are placed directly before the conjugated verb or attached to the end of present participles and infinitives

EXAMPLES:

• Te digo la verdad: I am telling the truth
• Estoy preguntándole/Le estoy preguntando: I am asking her

Describe the use of indirect and direct object pronouns together and provide examples

When used together with a direct object pronoun, the indirect object pronoun is placed first. If le or les is used next to lo, la, los, or las, it changes to se

EXAMPLES:

Me lo dieron: They gave it to me

Se lo dieron: They gave it to him

Some verbs that typically take an indirect object pronoun are:

contestar, dar, decir, explicar, preguntar, regalar, and responder

Another class of verbs are used primarily in the third person singular or plural with an indirect object pronoun

The most common of these is gustar (Me gusta el chocolate, les gusta bailar, te gustan los gatos)

Other verbs include: doler, encantar, enojar, faltar, fascinar, importar, interesar, and molestar

DESCRIBE THE USE OF PREPOSITIONAL PRONOUNS AND GIVE EXAMPLES:

Prepositional pronouns are used as objects of a preposition

They are the same as the subject pronouns with the exception of mí and ti

Singular Plural

1st person mí: me nosotros(as): us

2nd person inf. ti: you vosotros(as): you all

2nd person for. usted: you ustedes: you all

3rd person él: him ellos (as): them

ella: her

Mí and ti combine with the preposition con to create the forms conmigo and contigo

DESCRIBE THE USE OF REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS AND PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF EACH FORM

Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns

Singular Plural

1st person me: myself nos: ourselves/each

other

2nd pers. inf. te: yourself os: yourselves/each other

2nd pers.form. se: yourself se: yourselves/each

other

3rd person se: himself/her- se: themselves/

self/itself each other

Reflexive pronouns indicate that the subject of the sentence does something to himself or herself

Some verbs are almost always reflexive and can be identified by the se at the end of the infinitive (levantarse)

Other verbs can be used reflexively or with a distinct subject and object (Me lavo la cara/lavo el coche)

When a reflexive pronoun is used, a possessive pronoun does not need to be used as it is in English (Pedro se lavó el pelo/Pedro washed his hair)

When used as reciprocal pronouns, nos, os, and se communicate the idea of each other(Alma y Juana se ayudan/Alma and Juana help each other)

Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns are placed directly before the conjugated verb or attached to the end of present participles and infinitives

EXAMPLES:

Me afeito todos los días: I shave every day

Mi hermana está preparándose/Mi hermana se está preparando: My sister is getting ready

Nos vamos después de cepillarnos los dientes: We leave after brushing our teeth

EXPLAIN THE USE OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS IN SPANISH AND PROVIDE AN EXAMPLE OF EACH

Possessive pronouns in Spanish have the same functions as their English equivalent: they replace a possessive adjective and a noun

Possessive pronouns must be in accordance in gender and number with the noun they are replacing

EXAMPLE: ¿Son tus libros? Sí, son los míos

Below is the breakdown of the singular and plural, masculine, and feminine forms of these pronouns depending upon their owner:

SINGULAR PLURAL

OWNER MASC. FEMIN. MASC. FEMIN.

yo el mío la mía los míos las mías

mine mine mine mine

tú el tuyo la tuya los tuyos las tuyas

yours yours yours yours

usted

él el suyo la suya los suyos las suyas

ella yours/his/hers/its - all across

nosotros

(as) el nuestro la nuestra los nuestros las nue-

stras

ours - all across

vosotros(as) el vuestro la vuestra los vuestros las

vuestras

yours - all across

ustedes el suyo la suya los suyos las suyas

ellos

ellas yours/theirs - all across

DESCRIBE THE POSITION OF PRONOUNS WHEN USING THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND INFINITIVES AND PROVIDE EXAMPLES

Object, reflexive, and reciprocal pronouns, when used as the object of a present participle or infinitive, can be attached to the end of the present participle or infinitive to form a single word:

Escribiéndome, escuchándote, mirarla, seguirnos

Alternately, they can be placed in front of the conjugated verb when the participle or infinitive is part of a verb phrase

Both of these forms are commonly used

EXAMPLES:

• Pedro me estaba diciendo un cuento/Pedro estaba diciéndome un cuento: Pedro was telling me a story
• José te va a leer el libro/José va a leerte el libro: José is going to read you a book
• Susana nos tiene que esperar/Susana tiene que esperarnos: Susana has to wait for us

EXPLAIN THE USE OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS IN SPANISH

In Spanish there are three possible demonstrative pronouns (éste, ése, aquél) compared to the two that exist in English (this one, that one), and they do not have the word one following them as in English (this one/éste)

They have the same form as the demonstrative adjective (este) but with a written accent (éste)

Demonstrative pronouns much agree in gender and number with the noun they replace(blusa-ésta; libro-éste; casas-éstas; perros-éstos)

There is also a neuter form (esto, eso, aquello)

These do not have a written accent, and usually refer to ideas or general phrases

examples: (¿por qué dices eso?/why do you say that?; no hay nada peope que esto/there is nothing worse than this) Refer to the chart below:

Masc. Sing. Femin. Sing Neuter Mas.Pl Fem.Pl.

éste ésta esto éstos éstas

ése ésa eso ésos ésas

aquél aquélla aquello aquéllos aquéllas

EXPLAIN THE USE OF ADJECTIVE AND PRONOUNS IN SPANISH

Each and every are translated as cada (each season has its advantages/cada estación tiene sus ventajas; every passenger carried his suitcase/cada pasajero cargaba su maleta)

The equivalent of everyone and everybody is todos (everyone loves him/todos lo aman; everybody was ready/todos estaban listos)

Everything is todo (everything he said was true/todo lo que dijo era verdad)

Explain the use of relative pronouns in Spanish

Relative pronouns connect two clauses

Que, which can be translated as that, who or whom, is the most common relative pronoun in Spanish

Que introduces the relative or dependent clause

• Leo un libro. El libro es interesante-El libro que leo es interesante/The book that I am reading is interesting
• Las maestras trabajan en esta escuela. Las maestras son buenas - Las maestras que trabajan en esta escuela son buenas/the teachers who work in this school are good

In English, you can sometimes omit the relative pronoun (the house I like/the house that I like) This omission is NOT accepted in Spanish (la casa que me gusta)

Quien (who/whom), donde (where), el cual (which), and cuyo(whose) are also used as relative pronouns

Quien must agree in number with its antecedent, and el cual and cuyo must agree in number and gender

EXAMPLES:

• Elena es la amiga con quien fui al cine ayer/Elena is the friend with whom I went to the movies yesterday
• Ellos tienen cuatro perros, dos de los cuales se quedan en casa/They have four dogs, two of which stay in the house
• España es un lugar donde quiero viajar/Spain is a place where I want to travel
• La artista cuyas obras vimos en el museo viene a la clase mañana/The artist whose works we saw in the museum is coming to class tomorrow

DESCRIBE THE IDIOMATIC NATURE OF PREPOSITIONS AND DESCRIBE THE USE OF THE PREPOSITION A

Idiomatic Nature of Prepositions:

Prepositions are highly idiomatic; they are not easily translated from one language to another

For example, the Spanish preposition en can be translated in (Estoy en el carro/I am in the car), at (Estoy en casa/I am at home), and on (Estoy en mi bicicleta/I am on my bicycle)

Use of the preposition A:

The Spanish preposition a can be used to express many different concepts, as outlined below:

• Movement: Vamos a la biblioteca (we go to the library)
• Distance: La tienda se ubica a tres kilométros (the store is three kilometers away)
• Time/age: La fiesta comienza a las ocho the party begins at eight, Mi hija aprendió a leer a los seis años(my daughter learned to read at six years of age)
• Manner: Me gusta el pollo a la parrilla (I like grilled chicken)
• Personal a: Placed before a name or a personal pronoun when it is the direct object - Es importante escuchar a la maestra (It is important to listen to the teacher)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF THE PREPOSITION PARA

The English prepositions for and to can be translated as para, which is used in the following instances:

• Direction or destination (tenemos que salir para la oficina/we have to leave for the office)
• Recipient of something (compré esta blusa para mi hermana/I bought this blouse for my sister)
• Purpose (el plomero vino para arreglar la ducha/the plumber came to fix the shower)
• Time/deadline (siempre vamos a la casa de mis padres para Navidad/we always go to my parents' house for Christmas)
• Comparison (la mesa es demasiado grande para la cocina/the table is too big for the kitchen)
• Intended use (el día es para trabajar/the day is for working)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF THE PREPOSITION POR

In some instances the preposition for is translated as por

Por is also used to replace through, by, and per. Por is used in the following instances:

• Means of transportation or communication (lo llamo por teléfono/I call him by phone; voy a Madrid por avión/I go to Madrid by plane)
• Exchange/substitution (cambié la blusa grande por una mediana/I exchanged the large blouse for a medium)
• Duration (los niños jugaron por cuatro horas/the children played for four hours)
• Quantity (ella gana $400 por semana/she earns $400 per week)
• Object of an errand (voy al mercado por leche/I go to the market for milk
• Agent(el libro fue escrito por Pedro/the book was written by Peter)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF INTERROGATIVES IN SPANISH AND PROVIDE EACH WITH THEIR ENGLISH EQUIVALENT

Interrogative words are used to ask questions. In Spanish, they are always preceded and followed by a question mark and must carry a written accent. A list of Spanish interrogative words appear below:

¿Qué? What?

¿Cuál or Cuáles? Which (one/ones)?

¿Cómo? How?

¿Cuándo? When?

¿Dónde? Where?

¿Por qué? Why?

¿Cuánto(s)? How much/How many?

¿Quién(es)? Who?

EXPLAIN THE USE OF THE INTERROGATIVES cuál and dónde and provide examples of each

• Cuál is sometimes used in place of qué to ask "what" when it has the sense of "which one", or when the answer will be a selection from a discrete group
• EXAMPLES: ¿En qué piensas? (What are you thinking about?)
• Cuál es tu color favorito? (What is your favorite color?)

Dónde, when used to ask to where/where to(describing movement toward a location) is preceded by the preposition a

This a can be added to the beginning of dónde or left as its own word

• ¿Dónde estás? Where are you?
• ¿A dónde vas?/¿Adónde vas? (to) Where are you going?

In some instances, cómo is used instead of qué to translate an expression that uses what in English

For example, in some regions, if you don't understand or are incredulous about what is being said, you would say "¿Cómo?", similar to saying "What?" in English

Other expressions include ¿cómo te llamas? (how are you called/what is you name?) and ¿cómo eres? (how are you/what are you like?)

DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS TYPES OF ADVERBS AND THEIR USE. PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF EACH CATEGORY OF ADVERB

Both in English and in Spanish, adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and clauses (the bird flew high/el pájaro voló alto; the mountain is very high/la montaña es muy alta; the student knew the topic quite well/el estudiante sabía el tema bastante bien

Unlike adjectives, Spanish adverbs are not marked for gender or number

There are several kinds of adverbs:

1. Of manner: rápidamente(quickly), bien(well), apropi-adamente(appropriately)
2. of place: aquí(here), allá(there), alrededor(around)
3. of time: ahora (now), pronto(soon), hoy (today)
4. of frequency: nunca(never), ocasionalmente (occasionally), a menudo(often)
5. of degree: muy(very), bastante(quite), demasiado(too)
6. interrogative: cuándo(when?), dónde(where?), por qué (why?)
7. relative: cuando(when), donde (where), por que(why)

In Spanish, a prepositional phrase will often be used instead of an adverb (Mi padre no conduce con cuidado/Mi padre no conduce cuidadosamente:My father doesn't drive carefully

PROVIDE A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS AND COHESIVE PHRASES IN SPANISH (1 of 4)

The use of conjunctions and cohesive phrases is a mark of advanced thought and language ability (and therefore may result in a high score on a writing or speaking test)

Below is a list of common conjunctions and cohesive phrases in Spanish. You may find it helpful to memorize a few to use in the speaking or writing portion of the CSET:

a causa de on account of, because of

a fin de cuentas in the end, after all

a la (misma) vez at the same time

a partir de beginning with

a pesar de (que) in spite of the fact that

además besides, furthermore

ahora mismo right now

a la vez at the same time

al fin y al cabo after all, finally

al mismo tiempo at the same time

al principio at the beginning

al + infinitivo upon (action)

así (que) so

aun even

aunque although

como as, inasmuch as, because

PROVIDE A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS AND COHESIVE PHRASES IN SPANISH (2 OF 4)

Conjunctions and cohesive phrases:

como consecuencia as a consequence

como punto de partida as a point of departure

como resultado as a result

con relación a in relation to

con respecto a with respect to, regarding

conviene indicar/

señalar it is suitable to indicate/

point out

de antemano beforehand, in advance

de aquí(ahora, hoy)

en adelante from now on

de ese modo in that way

de hecho in fact

de modo que in such a way that

de todos modos at any rate, anyhow

debido a owing to, because of

dentro de poco shortly, in a short while

después de + infinitivo after (an action)

durante during

en cambio on the other hand

en conclusión in conclusion

en cuanto as soon

en cuanto a regarding

en definitiva in conclusion, definitely

en fin finally, in short

PROVIDE A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS AND COHESIVE PHRASES IN SPANISH (3 OF 4)

Conjunctions and cohesive phrases:

en primer lugar in the first place

en realidad in reality

en resumen in summary

es decir that is to say

entonces then

finalmente finally

hace poco a short while ago

hasta el momento/

la fecha until now

hay que tomar en

cuenta que one must realize that

hoy (en) día nowadays

lo importante es que what is important is that

luego later, then

mientras while

mientras tanto meanwhile

ni, ni neither/nor

ni siquiera not even

no...sino que not...but rather

o, o either/or

o sea that is to say

para concluir to conclude

para continuar to continue

para empezar to start

PROVIDE A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS AND COHESIVE PHRASES IN SPANISH (4 OF 4)

Conjunctions and cohesive phrases:

para ilustrar to illustrate

para resumir to summarize

para terminar to end

pero but

por because of

por consiguiente therefore

por ejemplo for example

por eso therefore

por lo general generally

por lo tanto therefore

por medio de by way of

por otro lado on the other hand

porque because

primero first

puesto que since, as

si if

sin embargo however, nevertheless

si no otherwise

sino que but rather

también also

tampoco neither, either

tan pronto como as soon as

una vez que once (that)

ya que because of, seeing that, since

DESCRIBE THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL ADDRESSES IN SPANISH. DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCES IN USAGE IN SPAIN VERSUS LATIN AMERICAN USAGE

In English, there is only second-person singular pronoun, you, for both formal and informal ways of addressing people. In Spanish, there are two forms:

the formal usted and the iinformal tú

The informal tú has its own particular conjugation for all tenses (tú vienes, tú fuiste, tú comerás, tú has dormido)

The informal tú also has its own set of object,possessive, and reflexive pronouns (tu libro, tus hermanos, esta casa es tuya, Ana te invita al concierto)

The formal usted, on the other hand, uses the same verb conjugations as the third-person singular pronoun él (usted viene, usted comerá, ustad ha dormido)

In a similar way, usted uses the third-person singular object, possessive and reflexive pronouns (su libro, sus hermanas, esta casa es suya, Ana lo invitó al concierto)

In different regions, the situations vary in which one form or the other would be used.

The informal second-person plural, vosotros, is primarily used in Spain. In the rest of the Spanish speaking world, the formal second-person plural, ustedes, is used

The informal vosotros has its own particular conjugation for all tenses (vosotros venís, vosotros fuisteis, vosotros comeréis, vosotros habéis dormido)

The informal vosotros has its own particular set of object, possessive and reflexive pronouns (vuestro libro, vuestros hermanos, esta casa es vuestra, Ana os invite al concierto)

The formal ustedes, on the other hand, uses the same verb conjugations as he third-person plus pronoun ellos(ustedes vienen, ustedes comerán, ustedes han dormido)

In a similar way, ustedes uses the third-person plural possessive and reflexive pronouns (su libro, sus hermanas, esta casa es suya, Ana los invitó al concierto)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF VOS AS AN INFORMAL FORM OF ADDRESS

In Argentina and Uruguay, the informal second-person singular pronoun tú is seldom used. Instead, these countries use vos. Vos has its own conjugation forms.

For most tenses, they are the same as the usual second person singular (tú comiste/vos comiste, tú has ido/vos has ido, tú comprarás/vos comprarás)

It is almost always diffferent in the present indicative though. In the case of regular verbs, the verb form is usually the normal second person singular, but with the stress on the last syllable (tú comes/vos comés, tú llegas/vos llegás)

Exceptions abound with irregular verbs (tú vienes/vos venís, tú eres/vos sos, tú cierras/vos cerrás)

EXPLAIN THE HIGH FREQUENCY IDIOMATIC EXPRESS OF HACE...QUE AND OJALá

HACE...QUE:

To describe an action that starts in the past and continues in the present, the Spanish language, like English, uses the present perfect tense (yo he estudiado español un año, Juan ha esperado dos horas, nosotros hemos vivido en esta ciudad muchos meses)

Very often, these same types of ideas are expressed with hace...que, which can be compared to the expression it's been in English (hace un año que estudio español, hace dos horas que Juan espera, hace muchos meses que nosotros vivimos es esta ciudad)

When using hace...que, the sentence begins with hace, the time modifier, and then que, followed by he subject and verb, which is now in the present indicative tense.

Ojalá

The Spanish word ojalá does not have an exact translation in English and is derived from Arabic

It is used to express a wish (ojalá supiera nada/I wish I knew how to swim) or hooe (ojalá que mañana sea un lindo día así podewmos ir al parque/I hope that tomorrow is a nice day so we can go to the park)

Ojalá is always followed by the subjunctive (Ojalá hubiera sabido esto ayer; ojalá lleguemos a tiempo; ojalá aprobemos el examen; ojalá hubiéramos salido más temprano)

EXPLAIN THE HIGH FREQUENCY IDIOMATIC EXPRESSION OF GUSTAR

GUSTAR(to like) in Spanish requires a different sentence structure than in English. In English, the word order is the person (subject), the verb, and then the object(I like this book)

In Spanish an indirect object pronoun goes first (representing the person), then the verb, and then the object, which is actually the subject of the sentence

(Me gusta este libro)

A literal translation of this sentence in English would be: this book is pleasing to me

The thing liked is always a noun or an infinitive verb

If the thing liked is a plural noun, the third person plural form of the verb is used (Te gustan los gatos)

Other verbs that require the same sentence structure as gustar are: molestar (me molestan los zapatos/the shoes bother me); aburrir (nos aburre la música clásica/classical music bores us); encantar (le encanta cantar/he loves to sing); fascinar; faltar; and interesar.

DESCRIBE THE USE OF SER IN SPANISH AND PROVIDE ITS CONJUGATIONS

Ser and estar ar both translated as to be in English but are not used interchangeably

Ser is used to describe something that is intrinsic to a person, object, or idea, such as nationality (Marta es argentina), origin (la carne es de vaca), identification (Pedro es mi hijo), physical characteristics (soy rubia), generalities (somos estudiantes), dates (hoy es el 12 de octubre), time of the day (son las diez de la noche), place of events (la fiesta es en mi casa), possession (la casa es mía), and personality traits (Ana es simpática)

The verb ser is very irregular; see the table below for its conjugation for the simple tenses of the indicative

PERSON PRESENT IMPERFECT PRETERITE

yo soy era fui

tú eres eras fuiste

él es era fue

Nosotros somos éramos fuimos

Vosotros sois erais fuisteis

ellos son eran fueron

DESCRIBE THE USE OF ESTAR IN SPANISH AND PROVIDE ITS CONJUGATIONS

Estar is used to describe something that can change, or is considered less permanent, about a person, object, or idea

It is used to describe location or position (el libro está sobre la mesa; Juan está en Nueva York),

physical characteristics: (Susana está bonita con ese vestido)

emotional characteristics(Pedro está contento) and actions in progress (María está cocinando; nosotros estamos tomando cerveza)

The verb estar is very irregular; refer to the table below for its conjugations in the simple tenses of the indicative:

Present Imperfect Preterite

yo estoy estaba estuve

tú estás estabas estuviste

él está estaba estuvo

Nosotros estamos estábamos estuvimos

Vosotros estais estabais estuvisteis

ellos están estaban estuvieron

DESCRIBE THE USE OF THE VERBS CONOCER AND SABER IN SPANISH AND DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE USAGE OF EACH

• There are two different verbs in Spanish, conocer and saber, with a clear distinction in meaning, that correspond to the verb to know in English
• Saber is used when to know implies a mental effort, study, or training (e.g., she knows how to cook pasta/ella sabe como cocinar pasta; he knows the less/él sabe la lección; they know to get to the church/ellos saben como llegar a la iglesia)
• Conocer is used when to know denotes knowing through familiarity or acquaintance (e.g., he knows Mr. Jones/él conoce al Sr. Jones; she knows this part of the city/ella conoce esta parte de la ciudad)

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF VERBS IN SPANISH THAT HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS DEPENDING ON WHETHER THEY ARE USED AS A REFLEXIVE VERB OR NOT

There are several verbs in Spanish that a different meaning depending on whether they are used as reflexive verbs or not.

Parecer means to seem or to appear (parece que va a llover/it seems it is going to rain)

Parecerse means to resemble (Juan se parece a su padre/Juan resembles his father)

Dormir means to sleep (Ana duerme ocho horas por día/Ana sleeps eight hours per day)

Dormirse means to fall asleep (Jorge se durmió en el tren/Jorge fell asleep in the train)

Other examples are llamar( to call) and llamarse (to be named) as well as llevar (to carry) and llevarse (to get along)

PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF COMMON VERBS WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS IN THE PRETERITE TENSE

Several verbs have a different meaning when used in the preterite tense, as seen below:

Infinitive Translation Preterite Meaning

conocer to know met: Yo conocí a mi novio en Dallas

saber to know found out: Su mamá supe

que Juan recibió una F

poder to be able succeeded/failed: Finalmente, pudo montar

en bicicleta/No pudo

completar la tarea

querer to want tried/refused: Quise

esquiar/No quise comer

el bróculi

tener to have got: Tuvimos un trofeo

cuando ganamos

DESCRIBE SPECIAL USES OF THE VERB QUERER

Quisiera and other forms of the imperfect subjunctive of QUERER are used very often in Spanish followed by an infinitive to express a polite request or desire and to soften a statement (yo quisiera hablar con usted; nosotros quisiéramos visitar Francia)

It can be compared to would like in English (I would like to talk with you, we would like to visit France)

If a different subject is introduced after quisiera (yo quisiera que usted...), then an infinitive clause cannot be used, and it must be replaced by a subordinate clause that uses the imperfect of the subjunctive (yo quisiera que usted me acompañara, Juan quisiera que el trabajo fuera más fácil)

DESCRIBE THE USE OF THE PASSIVE SE AND PROVIDE EXAMPLES

Instead of using the passive voice (ser + past participle) in those cases where the subject of the sentence is an inanimate object or when the performer of the action is not important or is not specified, Spanish employs the passive se with a third person verb (singular or plural). This particular structure is most often used in the present tense.

EXAMPLES:

• se venden flores en esa tienda instead of flores son vendidas en esa tienda
• se espera una gran lluvia instead of una gran lluvia es esperada
• ¿cómo se dice "grocery store" en español? instead of ¿cómo es dicho "grocery store" en español?

DESCRIBE THE COMMON USE OF THE WORDS PERO AND SINO AND PROVIDE EXAMPLES

Both pero and sino(que) translate the English word but.

Pero is used to link affirmative or negative sentences

• Ella tiene mucho dinero pero no lo gasta
• Ella no tiene mucho dinero pero va de compras todos los días

Sino (que) contrasts two statements, the first one in the negative and the second one in the affirmative, and can also be translated on the contrary, rather, or instead

• No fuimos a Disney World sino a la playa
• No me gusta tocar el piano sino escucharlo
• Se dio prisa, entonces no caminó sino que corrió

DESCRIBE THE SPANISH EQUIVALENTS OF THE ENGLISH WORDS SOME, ANY,OF MANY/MUCH, FEW/LITTLE

• In English, there are two different words to express the concept of a certain amount:
• some, which is used in affirmative sentences (we have some time)
• any, which is used in negative and interrogative sentences (we don't have any ideas; do you have any brothers?)
• The Spanish language uses algún (alguna, algunos, algunas) o un poco de (tenemos algún/un poco de tiempo; ¿tienes algún hermano?) for affirmative and interrogative sentences
• ningún (ninguna, ningunos, ningunas) or nada de for negative sentences (no tenemos ninguna idea; no tenemos nada de cambio)
• The same rule applies to compound words formed with some and any
• Spanish will use alguien (somebody/anybody), algo (something/anything), algún lugar (somewhere/anywhere, etc.) for the affirmative and interrogative forms
• nadie, nada, ningún lugar, etc. for the negative forms

In English, many is used before countable nouns (many books, many things), and much before uncountable nouns (much money, much meat)

The Spanish language does not differentiate between countable and uncountable nouns and uses only the word mucho

However, the ending of mucho will change according to the gender and number of the noun that follows (muchos libros, muchas cosas, mucho dinero, mucha carne)

The same thing happens with few (few mistakes, few houses) and little (little time, little milk)

In both cases they will be translated as poco, whose ending will agree in gender and number with the noun that follows (pocos errores, pocas casas, poco tiempo, poca leche)