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| based on the idea that the universe is orderly |
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seeing a connection when there really isn't.
ex: skinner's superstitious conditioning. |
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| gathering information from observations "straight from the horses mouth" |
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| defined by how something is measured |
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| general statement about the relationship between two or more variables |
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| universal statement about how nature predicts future events |
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| generate testable hypotheses |
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| times when rules do not apply |
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| human behavior usually has multiple determinants |
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| tendency to confirm rather than disconfirm hypotheses |
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| search for information that confirms preconceptions |
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| gather evidence that confirms hypothesis |
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| gather evidence to disconfirm hypothesis |
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| identify boundary conditions |
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| develop hypothesis from specific to general through experience, observation, or serendipity |
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| generate hypothesis from general to specific using analogies and accounting for conflicting results |
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events are assigned to categories with no particular order
Ex: Male/Female; Yes/No; marital status |
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order objects, behaviors but without quantified differences
EX: G-PG-PG13-R; * ** *** **** |
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meaningful differences between categories, equal increments but no true zero
EX: Temp C or F |
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true zero, generates the most useful data
EX: family income; weight; age |
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| true score + measurement error |
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1. people are different
2. people change
3. studying people changes people |
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| threats to internal validity |
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| regression toward the mean, heterogeneous attrition, history and maturation, participant reaction (expectancies, demand characteristics) participant reactance, evaluation apprehension |
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| threats to external validity |
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| selection bias, non response bias, homogeneous attrition |
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| systematic variance + error variance |
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| treatment variance and confound variance |
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| variability based on treatment. want to increase probability that x caused y |
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| systematic differences caused naturally or artificially. want to minimize or eliminate |
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measure variables relationship to responses. range: 0.00- 1.00
sm: 0.1
med: 0.6
lrg: 0.?? |
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| choose out of whole population (sampling frame) and choose subjects randomly |
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| divide population into groups with shared characteristics, called stratum |
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| divide population into clusters, schools, counties, geographic areas etc |
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| choose subjects that are easily accessable |
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choose subjects according to quota
EX: 10 M, 10 F |
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judgement on type of participant
EX: obese, tattoos, blonde hair etc. |
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| (r) measurement of the strength of the relationship between two variables -1.0 to 1.0 |
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| coefficient of determination |
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r^2 X 100 = %
sm: 0.01
med: 0.09
lrg: 0.25
ACTIVITY explains % variability in SUBJECT, % of variability is not explained by ACTIVITY |
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| things that affect significance of (r) |
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1. sample size
2. confidence level 0.05/0.01
3. strength of correlation |
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| things that affect strength of (r) |
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1. restricted range
2. outliers (inline/offline)
3. reliability of measures |
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correlation between two variables with the influence of one or more statistically removed
EX: can conclude that stress has a strong influence on BLANK because the correlation dropped dramatically after stress was removed. |
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| examines the difference between group means |
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mean1=mean2
the independent variable had NO EFFECT |
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mean 1 does not equal mean 2
independent variable had an effect |
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| determined that IV had effect with the difference between the means was actually due to error variance |
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| determined that IV did not have an effect when actually it did because of unreliable measurement techniques, mistakes in data collection and recording or the sample was too small |
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| things necessary for a well designed experiment |
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1. must vary at least one independent variable
2. assign subject to conditions
3. control extraneous variables |
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categorical changes
EX: gender, grade level, hair color etc. |
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differences in numbers
EX: time spent exercising, sleeping, studying etc. |
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change the physical environment of the subjects
EX: temp of room, outside/inside |
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| give the subjects different verbal instructions |
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create physical changes in the body of the subjects
EX: pills, heart rate etc. |
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| matched random assignment |
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| pretest subjects to increase similarity in groups |
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| subjects participate in only one level |
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| subjects participate in all levels, no random assignment |
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| individual differences, transient states, environment, differential treatment |
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| two or more independent variables are manipulated |
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| effects of the independent variable on the subjects behavior |
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| present if the effect of one independent variable changes across levels of another independent variable. *only present in factorial designs |
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| six commandments of being a good experimenter |
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1. be suave-professionalism
2. be nice, polite and friendly
3. be educated
4. be honest
5. be a good liar
6. be attentive |
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the experiment is conducted after the groups are already formed
pro: practical, new perspective on research
con: no cause effect, no manipulation of IV, no random assignment |
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use pre-test/post-test to measure frequency of the event increased or decreased behavior
* time serieis: measure the DV multiple times in the pre-test and post-test |
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