Muhammad Mossadegh

-          Who:  Prime Minister of Iran (1951-1953)

-          Why Important: Enormously popular Nationalist Prime Minister Who ran on a populist platform.  Even though he came from a very rich and prominent family he distanced himself from the royal house and during his premiership attempted to decrease the power of the Shah. He also nationalized Iranian oil in 1951, which until that point had been under the control of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later called BP). This decision greatly angered the British who then began to plot his overthrow.  They began with an embargo on Iranian oil which hurt the Iranian economy and Mossadegh’s popularity.  Though initially the United States had supported the Iranian Prime Minister, they began to believe he had communist leanings (primarily because of his uneasy alliance with the communist Tudah party) this played a role in their decision to help the British overthrow the prime minister. In 1953 Kermit Roosevelt, under the Eisenhower administration, was sent to Iran to overthrow the PM in operation Ajax. The operation was thought to be a success at the time; however, it has become the definition of blowback as the coup crushed Iran’s nascent democracy and was an important factor behind the Iranian revolution

-           When: Prime Minister between 1951-1953

-          Where: Iran

Muhammad Reza Pahlevi

-          Who: Shah of Iran (1941-1979)

-          Why Important: The Shah of Iran came to power in 1941 with British help, taking over for his father who was forced to abdicate. Coming to power in this manner greatly hurt the Shah’s power and he could never quite get out from the shadow of illegitimacy. During his tenure he saw the overthrow of his Prime Minister by Western hands (another event which damaged his legitimacy and power), the nationalization of Iranian oil, the White Revolution (attempted modernization of the country), and his own overthrow.  He was a staunch Western ally, maintained secret relations with Israel, and aspired to leadership of the Persian Gulf. Iran, under the Shah, was seen as an important part of the Nixon Doctrine which provided support to regional allies so they, instead of the United States, could maintain stability in the region (Saudi Arabia was also an important part of the Nixon Doctrine in the Gulf). By all accounts the Shah was a rather weak and indecisive leader who became more and more paranoid with time until he finally micromanaged his entire country. He was not well liked by his people and his grandiose displays of power and wealth did not help him, although one of his purposes in these displays was to reassert his power.   He also had a rather atrocious human rights record.

NIOC

-          What: National Iranian Oil Company (est. 1951)

-          Why Important: Founded in 1951 under the premiership of Muhammad Mossadegh, National Iranian was the successor company to Anglo-Iranian whose concession had been revoked after they refused to give Iran a larger share of the oil profits. However, after Mossedegh was overthrown, the company became a consortium of international oil companies (40% British, 40% American, 14% Dutch, and 6% French).  Though they did give Iran 50% of the profits (as compared to the 15% they got with Anglo-Iranian), they did not allow the Iranian government access to their books or allow Iranians to sit on the board.  After the Islamic Revolution in 1979, the company was fully nationalized 

Operation Ajax/Trajax

-          What: Joint US-British covert operation overthrowing Iranian PM Muhammad Mossadegh (1953)

-          Why Important: In 1952 the British approached the Americans with a plan to overthrow democratically elected PM Muhammad Mossadegh, however, the Americans, under Truman were not receptive to the idea and rejected the plan. Later, when Eisenhower had been elected, the plan was brought up again and accepted, in part because of the influence of the Dulles brothers (who were virulent anti-communists) and because the US had begun to suspect Mossadegh of communist leanings due to his dealings with the Tudah party. The United States sent Kermit Roosevelt as head of the operation and he was able to succeed in overthrowing the Prime Minister on his second attempt.  His main tools were a firman from the Shah and hired mobs.  The CIA installed General Zahedi in the spot of Prime Minister. Though this operation was seen as a great success at the time and in fact was just the first of many covert operations against foreign government, it has become the definition of blow back. It crushed Iran’s nascent democracy and was one of the greatest factors behind the Iranian revolution and the souring of relations between Iran and the United States

Kermit Roosevelt

-          Who: Senior CIA officer in the Middle Eastern Division; Mastermind of the 1953 coup against Muhammad Mossadegh (code name: Operation Ajax)

-          Why Important: Kermit Roosevelt, grandson of Theodore Roosevelt, was the mastermind behind the coup against democratically elected Prime Minister Muhammad Mossadegh. Though the first coup attempt failed and Roosevelt may have even been ordered to give up, he persisted and ousted Mossadegh, replacing him with General Zahedi. His main tools were a firman signed by the Shah appointing Zahedi as the new Prime Minister (this gave the coup a veneer of legitimacy) and hired mobs which were able to rile Tehran up.  Kermit Roosevelt was also the man who delivered $3 million worth of bribe money to President Nassir (who then built Cairo tower with it).

Eisenhower

-          Who: President of the United States (1953-1961)

-          Why Important: He was the President during the period in which the United States carried out its first covert operation against a foreign government (i.e. Operation Ajax). He was also president in power during the Suez crisis, during which time he rebuked Western allies Britain and France in favor of Egypt. He promulgated the Eisenhower doctrine. 

 John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles

-          Who: JFD was the Secretary of State and his brother, Allen, was the Director of the CIA; they were in power during Operation Ajax

-          Why Important: They both played a major role in the overthrow of the Mossadegh government and they were huge proponents of covert ops. They also believed in massive retaliation.

Free Officer’s Coup (or July Revolution)

-          What: 1952 Bloodless Revolution against the Egyptian Monarchy

-          Why Important: Brought the Free Officers and Nassir to power. Though Nassir did not become President immediately, he was the power behind the throne (so to say).  The Free Officers had formed after the military defeat of the Arabs in 1948; they believed that the Egyptian monarchy was the reason why Egypt lost (poor arms, monarchy is corrupt and craven). The coup was very popular, especially since it brought an actual Egyptian to power. 

The Suez Crisis

-          What: 1956 Invasion of Egypt by Britain, France, and Israel

-          Why Important: After funding for the Aswan dam project fell through (primarily because Nassir recognized communist China), Nassir retaliated by nationalizing the Suez Canal. This greatly angered the British and the French who decided that they needed to take Nasser out of power and re-exert their influence in the region. They approached the Israelis and formed a plan. The Israelis would attack Egypt, then the UK and France would come in under the pretense of protecting the canal, ordering both armies back 10 miles from the canal. However, the Israelis would have had to move closer to the canal in order to move away from it. The biggest problem with this plan was that the American’s had not been informed, and Eisenhower was very, very mad. Not only because he hadn’t been told, but because the crisis overshadowed the Hungarian Revolution and the brutal Soviet crackdown that came along with it (and the Suez operation came just before an election). He ordered the British and French out. This was a major win for Nassir whose popularity in the Arab world shot up. The Israelis were able to get a UN force stationed in the Sinai and opened the Strait of Tiran to Israeli shipping. For the British and French, however, this event signaled the decline of their power in the Middle East. 

o   Other events leading up to

§  Anglo-Egyptian Accord (1954) – Removes British troops from Sinai

§  Baghdad Pact (1955)

§  Egyptian Turn to the USSR

Anthony Eden 

-          Who: British Prime Minister during the Suez Crisis (had also served as the Foreign Secretary)

-          Why Important: He decided along with France and Israel, to take Nassir out of power in response to his nationalization of the Suez Canal. He believed that Nassir was a dictator along the lines of Benito Mussolini and that he needed to be taken out of power.  Though the UK’s economy was still not healthy and the Island nation still relied on the US for support, Eden did not take the US into his confidence, instead relying on the close relationship between the two countries. However, this was a great miscalculation. Eden is generally thought to have been one of the least successful British Prime Ministers.

Gamal Abd al-Nasser

-          Who: President of Egypt and leader in the 1952 Coup

-          Why Important: Gamal Nasser became President in 1954, and was a high ranking member of the Free Officers.  He was the mastermind behind the revolution, and only did not take power immediately after the coup because it was decided the Revolution needed a known public face. Nasser quickly gained popularity both within and outside of Egypt; millions of Arabs tuned in to hear him talk on Radio Cairo. His words influenced people to action, his voice became the voice of pan-Arabism. Nasser also nationalized the Suez Canal which caused the British, French, and Israelis to try to militarily remove Nasser from power and get the canal back. However, the Americans were not informed and they got pissed. Amazingly the British, French, and Israelis left and because he ‘defeated’ imperialist forces and Israel in the Suez War.  Though the American’s were initially weary of Nasser, after the Syrian Crisis of 1957 in which Nasser played an important role in neutralizing the Soviet threat, America began to view Nasser as more of an ally (this policy would be carried out in earnest under the Kennedy administration).  Though his cult was strong, it basically died after the failed attempt to combine Egypt and Syria into the United Arab Republic and the disastrous war with Israel in 1967. He died in 1970

Ben Gurion

-          Who: David Ben Gurion was the first and longest serving Prime Minister of Israel serving from 1955 to 1953.

-          Why Important: He is considered to be one of the founding fathers of Zionism. He was a member of the Mapai Party (future Labor Party). In the 1920s he was elected Secretary General of the Histadrut and he molded it into a political, social, economic institution.  During the British Mandate years Ben Gurion was appointed to be chairman of the Jewish Agency. During WWII he followed the innovative strategy of fighting the war as if there were no white paper, and fighting the white paper as if there were no war.  In international relations Ben Gurion adopted a pro-western orientation. After spending much of his life in the political arena, Ben Gurion died in 1973

 Moshe Dayan

-          Who: Israeli military commander and statesman; he was minister of defense during both the 1967 War and the 1973 war.

-          Why Important: He was a member of Mapai and the Labor governments in Israel and was an important part of government and served in many posts, including Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Defense, and Foreign Minister. He was the architect of the Suez campaign and  during the Six-Day War he was the Minister of Defense. Dayan served as Foreign Minister in PM Meacham Begin’s government; this was primarily as a salve to the more liberal elements of the country who were frightened by the changes brought in the 1977 electoral revolution (showed continuity). 

UNEF

-          What: United Nations Emergency Force

-          Why Important: Entered the Sinai after the 1956 Suez War in order to provide a buffer between Israel and Egypt. In 1967, Nassir was under great pressure as other Arab countries accused him of hiding behind the UN’s skirts. He, at first, asked if the UN would remove some of the troops in the Sinai, however, the UN Secretary General, U Thant, said that it was an all or nothing proposition. Nassir than ordered all of the UN troops out of the Sinai.  

Strait of Tiran

-          What: Waterway between Egypt and Saudi Arabia leading to the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea

-          Why Important: In 1956 Israel was able to get the Straits opened, declaring that their closure would be seen as a casus belli. In 1967 Nassir closed the Straits.

The Eisenhower Doctrine

-          What: Doctrine promulgated by President Eisenhower in 1957

-          Why Important: After the Suez Crisis the US felt it needed to make its presence known in the power vacuum that had resulted in the ME. Promised US economic and military aid to any country that required it in order to fend off international communism. Basically the doctrine wanted to block the further expansion of the Soviet Union and its regional interpretation was to roll back Nassirism. However, the doctrine was not particularly well received in the Arab world, which saw the primary aggressors as the West and Zionism (Suez Crisis, 1956) rather than as the Soviets.  One example of how the Eisenhower Doctrine was used in the Middle East was the US intervention in the Lebanon Crisis of 1958 in which the US intervened on the behalf of the pro-Western Christian President against the Nasserist forces within the country.

The Lebanon Crisis of 1958

-          What: Political and Religious Tensions within the country of Lebanon which lead to the first application of the Eisenhower Doctrine by the United States

-          Why Important: Tensions first started when the pro-Western Christian President did not break relations with the Western countries which had attacked Egypt in the 1956 war; this angered Nasser, as did the President’s seeming closeness to the Baghdad Pact. Basically the situation consisted of tensions between the President and the pro-Nasserist elements within the country.  The United States ended up sending troops into the country to prop up the pro-Western regime. This was one of the first instances in which the United States used the Eisenhower Doctrine to intervene in a Middle Eastern Country.

The United Arab Republic

-          What: Union between Egypt and Syria begun in 1958 lasting until the Syrian secession 1961

-          Why Important: This was an important moment for pan-Arabism as the entire Arab world watched to see if the union would be successful. 

The Baath Party

-          What: Pan-Arab party founded in the 1930’s primarily in Syria by Michael Aflaq and Salah al-Bitar

-          Why Important: This party came to power in both Syria and Iraq in 1963, however, it has since been removed from Iraq by the 2003 American invasion.  Though the two Baath parties in Iraq and Syria were technically offshoots of the same organization, they were very antagonistic towards each other. The party’s slogan is freedom, unity, socialism. 

The events leading to the June1967 War

-          Events:

o   In the 1956 Suez War Israel had regained the right to ship through the Strait of Tiran and had announced that another blockade of Israeli shipping through the Strait would be a casus belli. During the period between the 1956 War and the 1967 War, Palestinian raids across the Israeli border had been increasing, as had Israeli retaliation for those raids. Israeli retaliation, many times, ending up being an attack the Palestinian’s host country; Israel was hoping that by attacking the host country, that country would be inclined to stop the Palestinian raids. During this period, Nassir had also been facing increasing pressure from the Arab community to do something about the Israelis who were attacking his Arab brethren (the responses for the Fayadeen attacks) as well as pressure to stop hiding behind the UN’s skirts. There was also intense competition between Syria and Egypt for leadership of the Arab world with Syria accusing Egypt of big talk but no action. This increased tensions in the Arab-Israeli conflict. One of the greatest pressures came in April, when the Israelis shot down six Syrian MiGs and then did a fly over of Damascus.  The Jordanians made a big deal of the fact that Nasser did not do anything in retaliation against the Israelis.  Nasser was given intelligence by the Russians to the effect that the Israelis were mobilizing along the Syrian border, though this information was patently false; it is unknown as to whether the Soviets knew that the information was false (though it is likely that they did). On May 14^th, Nassir marched his troops into the demilitarized Sinai, as one of the first major steps culminating in the 1967 War. Later Nasser, under pressure from Jordan’s criticisms of Egypt hiding behind the UN’s skirts, asks for a partial withdrawal of the UNEF from the Sinai. However, Secretary General, U Thant, replied that either all the troops must stay, or they all must go. Nasser asks for them all to go. This makes the Israelis very nervous. And a few days later, Nasser closes the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. The Straits, which had been opened to Israel in the 1956 War, were very important because they opened Israel to the East and to Iranian oil. Israel had previously announced that their closure was a casus belli.  Israel, not wanting a repeat of the 1956 war, was very attuned to the United States in this matter, however, when the Israelis turned to the US all the US did was reaffirm the Gulf of Aqaba was an international waterway, but they did nothing substantial to open it again. The light that Washington (under Johnson) gave to the Israelis was not a red light; it was more of a yellow one, at least by the end. At the end of May, Jordan was caught up in the tide of Arab nationalism and King Hussein was force to sign a defense pact with Egypt or else be overthrown by his own people; Syria and Egypt had previously signed a pact and Egypt and Iraq were to sign one in the near future.  During this period, the Arab countries were also stepping up their rhetoric against Israel.  Israel mobilized its forces, a state which involves pulling up a large portion of the civilian population and thereby disrupting the economy. This state cannot be sustained for a long period of time. The Israelis were also worried about Egypt striking their nuclear capabilities and any diplomatic cred the Egyptians would have after their foreign minister visited Washington. On June 5^th, the Israeli air force attacked Egyptian air fields in the Sinai. The war was basically over within 24 hours.

o   Why did Nasser Incite War

§  One of the reasons was that he was under immense political pressure

§  He felt that the international community would intervene to save him, much in the same light as 1956

§  He may have convinced himself that Egypt could take care of the Israelis (wishful thinking)

·         For this to happen, the US needed to stay out of the war

o   Why did the War happen when it happened

§  Low simmer (Quandt theory)

-          What: Thesis states that Johnson did not give the Israelis the go-ahead on the 1967 War, but he gave them his tacit approval, with caution. The Yellow light meant be careful and don’t count on the US if you get in trouble. Basically, it was a yellow light, that the Israelis, like most motorists, took as a green one. Quandt seems to think that complete support would have probably stopped Israel for acting unilaterally and maybe would have stopped the war; however, ambiguous support compelled the Israelis to act.

-          Why Important: The Israelis were highly attuned to Washington throughout the whole of the 1967 debacle. They did not want another situation like the 1956 War in which they were both rebuked by Washington and forced to give up land; they were also not particularly enamored with the idea of giving Nasser the political boost he was looking for.  During this period, Johnson was busy with the Vietnam War, and did not want to deal with another war in the Middle East.  Israel wanted the United States to take action to reopen the straits (which they thought the US had promised to do previously) however, Johnson did not want to go out on a limb by himself, and tried to get together an international force or impel the UN to take action, both of these ideas were unsuccessful (Red Sea Regatta). Johnson wanted multilateral action because he felt strong congressional and public support was important at a time when the US was still embroiled in the unpopular Vietnam War and because he was very concerned about his domestic position.  A constant refrain Israel heard was “Israel will not be alone unless it decides to go alone”, however, the Red Sea Regatta was not really getting anywhere and Johnson had nothing else to offer the Israelis.  Later, Johnson resigned himself to allowing the Israelis to do what they needed to do and when the Israeli Mossad agent took tone of Washington he believed that Israel should wait a few days, but that if they won decisively, no one would be unhappy.

Dimona

-          What: City in Southern Israel; a nuclear facility is located about 13 Kilometers into the Negev desert

-          Why Important: Israel’s nuclear capabilities have been long suspected and many suspect the nuclear facility at Dimona is capable of making nuclear weapons. However, Israel practices “nuclear ambiguity” and the world is therefore unsure of Israel’s nuclear capabilities.  Israel’s pursuit of nuclear weapons started under Ben-Gurion with French help.  owhoHowever, Israel’s nuclear capabilities play a role in the 1967 war (I think because the Israelis were scared Nassir was going to strike Dimona). Israel has stated that it will not be the first to introduce nukes into the Middle East (in terms of actually using them)

The territorial outcome of the 1967 war--Gaza, the West Bank, Sinai and Golan

-          What:

o   Israel Gains

§  Sinai

·         Israel is sitting on the east side of the Suez; perfect buffer, easy to defend

·         Willing to give it back in return for peace

§  West Bank

·         Has historical significance for the Israelis; they are not sure what to do with it

·         They make a decision not to make a decision; because of the domestic politics they do not offer the land for peace deal

§  Gaza

·         Israel has control of over a million Palestinians now (they don’t make a decision on the Palestinians)

§  Jerusalem

·         Annexed right away after the war

§  Golan Heights

·         They say that if the Syrians offer peace they will give back the Sinai

Effects of the 1967 War

-          What

o   Blow to pan-Arabism and Blow to Nassirism

§  Islamism began to assert itself

o   Palestinians began to believe that they could not rely on the Arab states to look out for their interests 

o   Land for Peace (UN Resolution 242)

o   Occupied Territory situation

UN Resolution 242

-          What: November 1967 UN Resolution

-          Why Important: Calls for the withdrawal of Israeli troops from occupied territories; however, note that this does not call for their withdrawal from all the territories. The resolution was ambiguous as to what the Israelis needed to do; they thought they could just withdraw from one kilometer of territory and fulfill the resolution. Also, calls for an end to belligerency and sets up the land for peace idea, however, the document is also fairly ambiguous on this point because it does not stipulate how much land for how much peace (i.e. full withdrawal for full peace, or some lesser combination). The document also fails to mention the Palestinian problem in any meaningful way. The most important thing about this is the land for peace formula. 

The Rogers Plans of 1969 and 1970

-          What: Plan proposed by Secretary of State Rogers

-          Why Important:  The plan was primarily based on UN Resolution 242 and proposed a binding peace agreement, Israeli withdrawal to the borders of the day before the 1967 War, and return or compensation for the refugees. While the Egyptians were cool to the plan, the Israelis outright rejected it.  The plan incorporated Soviet participation (though I think they may have rejected the plan, not sure), and Kissinger was not a fan of that.  The lukewarm reception to the plan and the lack of backing for the plan from the White House, killed the plan. – There was also the 1970 Rogers Initiative which brought about the cease fire in the War of Attrition.

Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger

-          Who: Nixon; President between 1969-1974 Kissinger served as his Secretary of State and National Security Council Advisor (also for Ford); aka during 1973 War

-          Why Important: Both of them believed that foreign policy should be made in secret with little or no input from the public or congress. They were also strong proponents of force and diplomacy going hand in hand.  Kissinger had free reign over most foreign policy; however, Nixon gave the Middle East to Secretary of State Rogers, at first, because he was scared that Kissinger’s Jewish origins would make the Arab states think the US was impartial.  During his presidency, Nixon primarily concentrated on Vietnam, the USSR, and China; the Middle East was not given primacy in the White House until the 1973 war. During the latter part of his Presidency, when Washington was dealing with the 1973 War and its aftermath, Nixon was embroiled in Watergate. Kissinger is famous for his step-by-step and shuttle diplomacy. He used this during the Sinai I and II agreements. Must talk about their roles in the 1973 war

-          Favorite Tactics: Linkage; wanted to work out global solutions so that compromises could be made in different parts of the world (1969)

State Department v. Kissinger

-          State: Advocated even handed approach and thought that it was the tensions in the ME that allowed the USSR to intervene and capitalize. To end the danger, end the crisis

-          Kissinger: Thought that the US should stick with its friend, Israel, until the Arabs saw that the US side was better and decided to jump ship.  Though that USSR involvement in the ME was dangerous and that they should just try to limit Soviet involvement (I think though détente) 

Détente

-          What: The relaxation of tensions between the United States and the USSR through economic deals and negotiations to reduce the rate of growth for superpower weapons

-          Why Important: This was an important part of US policy and was part of the reason that the US did not get involved in some of the conflicts in the ME as soon as it could have. Détente was supposed to limit the danger of the superpowers getting involved in regional conflicts and risking having them turn into a nuclear war. Later, it became apparent that the US took detente more seriously than did the USSR.

The Nixon Doctrine

-          What: Doctrine promulgated by President Richard Nixon in 1969

-          Why Important:  Said that the United States was going to look for regional allies rather than trying to become the policeman of the world. Two states that were important to this policy in the Middle East were Iran and Saudi Arabia. Israel also played an important role in this doctrine after the Jordanian Crisis of 1970.  The United States gave these countries weaponry and aid to advance US interests and stability in the region.

The Jordan Crisis of 1970 (also known as Jordanian Civil War and Black September)

-          What: The 1970 Civil War between Jordan and the PLO (also known as Black September)

-          Why Important: The PLO had basically turned Jordan into a state within a state. They had most of the power and they were conducting raids across the Jordanian-Israeli border with impunity. However, the debacle began with the cease fire agreement between Egypt and Israel. The Palestinians realized that there would be an initiative to try to squash their guerilla movements and raids across the border. The PFLP hijacked a couple of planes and flew them to Dawson air base, though they did not kill anyone, they did blow up the planes on the tarmac. This is a challenge to King Hussein’s power, because he could not do anything to stop them. King Hussein orders his army to take back Amman no matter what. The Jordanian forces probably could have dealt with the problem, but Syrian forces come to back up the Palestinians. The Americans start to get really upset because Syria is backed by the USSR and the USA had no forces in the area to help out.  Basically the US gives Hussein two choices, either be overthrown or accept Israeli help. King Hussein says that he will only accept Israeli air help, but he asks for a few days to deal with the problem. Hussein is able to turn back the Syrians (in large part because Hafiz al-Assad refused to send up the Syrian air force). As a result of this event, America begins to think that Israel may have some strategic importance to the US rather than being just a moral burden. Israel becomes part of the Nixon Doctrine.  If the US keeps Israel strong, it can be a regional stabilizer. This event also made Nixon skeptical about détente 

The PLO and Yasser Arafat

-          What:  Political Organization that is recognized by many countries as being the sole voice of the Palestinian people. It has observer status at the UN.

-          Why Important: The PLO was established in 1964 by the Cairo Summit and in 1974 the PLO was recognized by the Arab states to be the sole representative of the Palestinian people.  It has played an important role in raids against Israel and established a state within a state first in Jordan and then in Lebanon. Yasser Arafat is the famous leader of the organization, he gained control of it in 1969 and died in 2004.  The PLO was considered to be a terrorist organization by both Israel and the US until the 1991 Madrid Conference.

Anwar Sadat

-          Who: Former President of Egypt (assassinated) serving between 1971 and 1981

-          Why Important: Sadat succeeded Nassir as President and took the country in a new direction once attaining power. His credentials as a Free Officer and close confidant of Nassir were impressive; I have no idea if this helped him or not. After Nasser’s death he began taking the country in a new direction, however, it took a while before Washington stopped thinking of him as a lightweight.  However, when he first started to float his ideas, Washington was in the middle of an election year and the Watergate scandal was breaking and they did not pay the Middle East much attention. In 1972 he expelled his Soviet Advisors, this got Washington’s attention, however, they told him to wait until the election year was over. Sadat gets the feeling that Washington does not feel the proper urgency of situation in the Middle East. He decides to do something drastic; this is what the 1973 war was about. He was trying to tell Washington that the status quo in the Middle East was not acceptable.  He went into the 1973 War with limited ambitions, which the Israelis could not imagine.  His most notable achievements are his strong showing in the 1973 Yom Kippur War (which made him a hero in the Arab world), and reaching a peace agreement with Israel’s Menachem Begnin (Likud) Israel in 1979; however, the Israeli peace agreement hurt his position both within Egypt and the Arab world and Egypt was suspended from the Arab League after the treaty. He was assassinated in 1981.

-          Must talk more about his motivations in the Yom Kippur war and his activities in the peace process 

Hafiz al-Asad

-          Who: Former President of Syria from between 1971 to 2000 (when he died) he was succeeded by his son Bashar

-          Why Important: al-Assad has played a huge role in Arab politics since he came to power in the Corrective Revolution (an intra-party coup) of 1970. e HeHe had been the Minister of Defense during the Jordanian Civil War of 1970 and had refused to order the Syrian air force into the air. He is a member of the Ba’athist party; however his relations with Ba’athist Iraq were very strained.  Under Assad, Syria participated in the 1973 War against Israel. The Syrian leader and Sadat planned the war in secrecy and were very successful in the initial stage; however, their goals in the war were very different. While Sadat wanted to establish a bridgehead on the eastern side of the Sinai, Assad wanted to recover the Arab territory lost in the ’67 war. Therefore, as the Egyptians held their initial gains, the Israelis were able to concentrate their attacks on the Syrian front. Assad was not pleased.  After the war, Kissinger tried to get agreements for Assad on the same level as those in the Sinai I. He was able to get Assad some of the Golan back and establish a buffer UN force and in return Assad promised that he would check the fedayeen raids from Syria. This agreement to was important so that Egypt would not be seen as stepping too far ahead of the Arab world. Must talk about Assad in the peace process 

The Interim Canal disengagement proposal of 1971

-          What: In 1971 United States Assistant Secretary of State Joseph P. Sisco proposed an "interim Suez Canal agreement" to bring about a limited Israeli withdrawal from the canal, hoping that such an action would lead to a peace settlement. The proposal failed when neither Israel nor Egypt would agree to the other's conditions.

The October 1973 War/The Yom Kippur War/The Ramadan War

-          What: 1973 War initiated by Egypt’s Anwar Sadat and Syria’s Hafiz al-Assad

-          Why Important:  Sadat contemplated this move to show the rest of the world that the situation in the Middle East was not okay and that they needed to do something. This was also a way to make the bargaining positions the countries were coming from more symmetrical. The Arab states could not negotiate from such a weakened position.  Though there were indications that war was coming Israel still only had about 24 hours to actually prepare. The Israelis were convince that the Arabs would not go to war unless they knew that they could win; this was not likely, so , despite the warning signs, Israel did not think that the Arab states were preparing for war. However, the reason that Sadat chose war was not to win or regain his territory by military means, it was to reactivate diplomacy. This was Israel’s fatal mistake.  However, Sadat and Assad his different objectives. While Sadat just wanted to wake up the superpowers, Assad wanted to at least regain his territory. Therefore, when Egypt stopped after establishing a bridgehead across the Suez, Assad was very angry because this allowed the Israelis to concentrate on the Northern front and push the Syrians back from the gains they had made.  The Soviets were rearming the Arabs at this point, however, America did not do the same for the Israelis until later because Kissinger realized that he did not want a decisive victory for Israel and he did not want Egypt to be defeated because a more equal outcome would open up the possibility of negotiations (Sadat had communicated with Kissinger earlier in the war). But eventually both Superpowers were dangerously involved in the conflict. After Assad convinced Sadat to move out from his safe position under SAM air cover, the Israelis were able to move against the Egyptians and almost succeeded in encircling the Egyptian 3^rd army before a cease fire was called and held.  After the Saudi’s announced the oil embargo, both the US and USSR worked together to try to get the Oct 22^nd Cease fire, however, the Israelis did not stop right away; they stopped on the 25^th. After the war, even though they militarily lost, Egypt and Syria could claim psychological victory. The War was also a success in regards to Sadat’s original goal because the rest of the world definitely felt the conflict; the oil embargo hit people where it hurt and it almost ended up with a confrontation between the United States and  the Soviet Union.

-          Outcomes from the War and processes after it:

§  Egyptians switch sides from the USSR to the USA

§  the USA starts to get more involved in the Middle East

§  the USSR starts to move away from the Middle East

§  Oil was used as a political weapon

§  Israel and Egypt have a peace treaty

Kilometer 101 Agreement

-          What: Agreement between Israel and Egypt pushing the troops back to the Oct 22^nd lines and getting non-military supply to the Egyptian 3^rd Army. First official agreement between Israel and an Arab state since 1949 (Nov 11, 1973)

Golda Meir, Yitzhak Rabin

-          Who: Golda Meir was PM during the 1973 war Yitzhak Rabin came to power after her

-          Why Important: 

Sinai I agreement and Sinai II agreement

-          What : 1974 agreement between Egypt and Israel regarding the withdrawal of troops and 1975 Agreement

-          Why Important: This was primarily achieved through Kissinger’s shuttle diplomacy and is part of a larger theme of step-by-step diplomacy. Agreement concerns the withdrawal of Israeli troops further back into the Sinai and the implementation of a UN buffer zone. There was also a reduction of forces in the Sinai. In Sinai two the Israelis pulled back further and gave the Egyptians back their oil fields and Egypt allowed non-military cargo to pass through the Suez agreed to some peaceful sentiments.  America also promised Israel that it would not negotiate with the PLO until the organization recognized Israel and UN resolutions 242 and 383.  This second agreement especially was basically bought with American aid and weaponry. Many people asked if it was worth it for America to do so much to get so little. It was agreed upon that after Sinai II there should be a more comprehensive agreement. 

King Hussein

-          Who: Monarch of Jordan during the 1967 War, Jordanian Civil War, 1973 War

-          Why Important: He was an important US ally and had secret dealings with Israel. Despite this he participated in the 1967 war. 

The Arab oil embargo

-          What:  This was the Arab embargo against the United States for its role in the 1973 war beginning on Oct 19^th. The embargo also included a 5% decrease in production for every month Israel was occupying Arab territories.

-          Why Important: One of the reasons oil rich countries participated in the oil embargo was that many of these countries could not participate militarily in the conflict and therefore needed another way to participate. The embargo started on Oct 19^th and it may have been a way for the Saudis to try to save Sadat who was feeling the brunt of the Israeli counteroffensive against him at this point. The oil embargo was an important part of Sadat’s plan for the war; he wanted the world to feel the Arab-Israeli process and realize that it was an unacceptable status quo. After the embargo started,  the public began to clamor for the administration to do something.  The oil-embargo was one of the impetuses behind Kissinger’s emphatic pursuit of an agreement from the Egyptians and Israelis in Sinai I, however, the embargo was lifted in March 1974, before Kissinger got around to finishing up with Damascus.  Though the oil producers had not had all of their demands met, they were willing to end the embargo because there was some progress and because they couldn’t keep oil away from one of the biggest oil consumers in the world; they needed to make money.   

Jimmy Carter

-          Who: President between 1977-1981

-          Why Important: He was ready to tackle the issues of the Middle East full on, however, his administration was not prepared to deal with the new Israeli party in power in Israel. He also thought that the Palestinian issue was very important, possibly because he saw parallels between the Palestinian situation and the plight of African Americans in the south. In the Clinton Proposals he said that the Arabs should get all their lands back if they give full peace and that the Palestinians should get a homeland of their own (this was a very new  idea at the time and it shocked basically everyone)

Zbigniew Brzezinski

-          Who: National Security Advisor in the Carter Administration

-          Why Important: He was an academic like Kissinger and he aspired to reach the same success as Kissinger. He was an author in the controversial 1975 Brookings Report which said that step-by-step diplomacy was at the end of the road; he thought there should be a comprehensive settlement and Carter was behind this idea.

Cyrus Vance

-          Who: Secretary of State under Carter

-          Why Important: He believe that the UN and international law mattered

Menachem Begin

-          Who: Prime Minister of Israel between 1977-1983

-          Why Important: Begin came to power under the electoral revolution of 1977 and he was a member of the right-wing Likud party. Begin believed the West Bank or, as he liked to call it, Judea and Samaria was an integral part of Israel and that it could not be given up.  Begin did not want to back down on many issues and under him settlements in the occupied territories increased He thought his big concession was saying that Israel did not have to have Jordan too. He is best known for the Peace Treaty he concluded with Egyptian President, Anwar Sadat, in 1979.

Ezer Weizman

-          Who: Defense Minister under Menachem Begin and later Prime Minister

-          Why Important: He was the most fervent supporter of peace with Egypt in the Israeli cabinet. 

Sadat's trip to Jerusalem

-          What: Sadat visited Jerusalem

-          Why Important: When Sadat saw a lull in the peace process, Sadat decided to speed it up again by visiting Israel.  He wanted to do this to convince the Israelis that Egypt was serious about peace and to restore momentum to the process.  Basically, Sadat recognized Israel with this move. It was an important symbolic step forward in the peace process. Sadat also became like a pop hero in Israel, at least. They also made these really awesome shirts.

The Camp David Summit and the Camp David Accords

-          What: Summit held in 1978 in Camp David and Accords signed in the same year which lead to the 1979 Egyptian Israeli Peace treaty

-          Why Important: Carter invited Begin and Sadat to Camp David after a lull in the diplomatic maneuvering following Sadat’s visit to Israel in 1977.  The two leaders did not get along at all and Sadat even threatened to leave.  It ended up that Carter did a good bit of negotiation for the Egyptian side as he and Sadat were fairly good friends and the Americans ended up writing drafts and showing them to the sides.  At Camp David, Begin was in a very good bargaining position while Sadat and Carter were in very weak bargaining positions. However, Sadat did get the Sinai back.  Two frameworks for peace were signed at Camp David; one was the Egyptian-Israeli bilateral agreement and the other was a comprehensive framework for peace. This was important, but the two frameworks were not linked to one another, which meant that progress on the Egyptian-Israeli front was not linked to progress on the comprehensive Arab-Israeli front (this is not something that Sadat wanted as he did not want to be seen as leaving behind the rest of the Arab world and the Palestinians). 

Egyptian-Israeli Peace Agreement 

-          What: Peace Agreement between Israel and Egypt concluded on March 16, 1979

-          Why Important: This was the first peace agreement between and Arab country and Israel.This peace agreement directly steams from the Camp David Accords agreed to in September of 1978.  The US promised these countries and enormous amount of aid, which they are still receiving today. 

The impact of Egyptian-Israeli peace on the broader region

-          What:  One of the most important things the treaty did was ensure that there would be no more Arab-Israeli wars in the classical form. Without the biggest and strongest Arab country, Egypt, the other states had no chance of taking on Israel.  The Palestinian problem became more difficult to solve since the Arab world had lost a big piece of its leverage and Begin’s Israel felt it hand impunity to do whatever it wanted on a lot of fronts including the settlements in the occupied territories and Lebanon. Lebanon was one of the most important because Israel felt free to move against the PLO and interfere in Lebanese affairs (1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon).  And after Egypt had been sidelined in the Arab arena (it was kicked out of the Arab League), Iraq began to try to assert itself in the Arab world; Lesch says that Iraq’s desire to assert itself lead to the Iran-Iraq war. There is good though; the treaty has broken psychological barriers and provided a template for future negotiations.

Balfour Declaration

-          What: Statement issued by the British government in 1917 (letter from Foreign Sec. Balfour to Lord Rothschild)

-          Why Important: stipulated, among other things, that the British government viewed “with favor” the establishment of Jewish home in Palestine.  The document also mentions that nothing will be done to harm the non-Jews already in Palestine or the Jews in other countries who do not go to Palestine. This marked the first great success of the Zionist movement. It is unknown as to exactly why the British decided to make this declaration, though it may have been to entice the American’s into the War and to gain Jewish support for the allies.  The document contradicted previous promises the British had made (i.e. McMahon-Hussein Correspondence) 

Zionism

-          : the belief that Jews are a national community entitled to their own independent state.

-          Why Important: The Zionist movement redefined the Jewish community as a national community.  One of the most important figures in the Zionist movement was Theodor Herzel, an assimilated Austrian journalist who became an ardent Zionist after witnessing the Alfred Dreyfus Trial (late 19th century). In 1987 Herzel organized the First Zionist Congress in Basel Switzerland in 1897. The first major victory for the Zionist movement was the Balfore Declaration of 1917. And the Jewish state of Israel was founded on May 14, 1948.

Realism

-          What: Theory of International Relations in which states are rational and are primarily motivated by their National Security and survival.

-          Why Important: States are primarily motivated by their national security and survival. The theory says that the international system is one of anarchy and a nation is on its own and it must look out for its own interests because no one else will and because there is no international arbiter to do so.  The theory does not put much credence in the affect of individual leaders on a nation’s trajectory, instead positing that the interests of a nation are steady and the leaders only give little tweaks to the course.  The theory sees relative levels of power as the prime determinate for relations between states.  The theory sees states as the primary actors in the international arena à Practitioner; Henry Kissinger

Liberalism

-          What: Theory of international  relations which assumes that states have more than one interest. i.e. states  are not only interested in their national security and survival.

-          Why Important: Liberalism says that states will look for opportunities to pursue their mutual interests with other states (i.e. interests will draw states together à European Union). These interests can be anything from economic interests to cultural interests

Consequentialist  

-          What: Theory of international relations that privileges that shared ideas and values

-          Why Important: This theory privileges shared interests and values and says that that international relations is socially constructed. For example, democratic countries generally do not fight each other and Arab countries have not had any really prolonged wars against each other (Iraq à Kuwait is an exception). For example, Nasser did not compel Syria to stay in the UAR against their will with force. However, a point against this the fact that Arab nationalism did not play a longer, more sustained role.  

Preemptive War

-          What: This type of war is one in which you see an inevitable threat in the very near future (i.e. a few days) and move to counter it to gain strategic advantage.  Or putting it another way, a state targets an enemy that represents an imminent threat. This type of war is seen as ‘legitimate’ in many circles

-          Why Important: The 1967 War (Israel’s strike against the Egyptian air force) is classified as this type of war.

Preventive War

-          What: This type of war is when one recognizes a threat that will not become active for a few years. Or, putting it another way, a state targets an enemy before they can become an imminent threat.

-          Why Important: This type of war is generally not thought of as legal; an example is the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in WWII

Baghdad Pact

-          What: Defense Pact between Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan and the UK (with American approval)

-          Why Important: This pact was meant to check Egypt’s power and Soviet influence in the Middle East, however, it was actually a boon to Egypt and provided the Soviet Union with an “in” to the Middle East as Nasser turned to the USSR for arms. (Nasser had launched a propaganda campaign against Iraq as a lackey of Western imperialism). Baghdad Pact backfired

Deterrence Theory

-          What: Theory that suggests that states are rational and that they will not attack another state if they are sure to lose

-          Why Important: It would seem that this theory would have come into play in both the 1967 war and the 1973 war, however, the theory fails to take into account the effect of politics and pressure on political actors. For example, Hussein knew that he would probably lose if he threw his lot in with Egypt and Syria, however, he had to show his solidarity with other Arab leaders and with the Palestinians or risk being overthrown by his own people. He did not, however, foresee the great loses he would sustain in the war; this was a miscalculation. Therefore, deterrence will not always work because one side or the other may miscalculate 

Levi Eshkol

-          Who: Israeli Prime Minister during the 1967 (Six-Day) War

Tripartite Agreement (1950)

-          What: Agreement between United States, UK, and France

-          Why Important: The Great Powers basically try to put the Middle East on ice. They tried to limit the arms race in the Middle East and they promise to uphold the armistice borders formed after the 1948 war. They will oppose Israel if they violate the borders and they will oppose the Arabs if they violate the borders. However, the great powers failed to take into account the fact that the Soviet Union was willing to sell arms to the region and the agreement was flagrantly violated by France and Britain in the 1956 Suez War.

Anglo-Egyptian Accord

-          What: Agreement between Britain and Egypt signed in 1954 removing British troops from the Sinai

-          Why Important: The accord was vehemently opposed by Israel which did not want the buffer force of 80,000 British troops removed from the Sinai. They tried to torpedo the agreement anyway they could; including through a spy ring in Egypt (the spy ring that got caught).