Thiamethoxam

A group 4A insecticide registered for control of brown marmorated stink bug. Provides only suppression. Two applications works for 60 days. Unlikely to address BMSB when it is actually in the orchard.

Order Coleoptera, family Staphylinidae. A genus of natural enemies of carrot rust fly.

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Megachile rotundata

Order Hymenoptera, family Megachlidae. A managed solitary bee. Studied for economic reasons. Collects leaves to build its nest. Can be purchased from Western Canada in pupal leaf cells reared in a growth chamber. May be reared February - October; more accessible than honey bees. May be preyed upon by Chalcidoid wasps. Breed in nest boxes in the field, which can have thousands of holes where they lay eggs; makes measurement of reproductive activity very easy. Foraging range is 100 m, making them suitable for field and tent experiments. If too many males are in a tent it can decrease female fertility due to too many mating attempts. Ovary and egg development only occurs in adult females after they consume pollen. Chitin synthesis inhibitors usually impact larvae and pupae, but may also affect eggs. Laboratory assays can quickly assess effects without having to wait a year for progeny emergence. Used to pollinate alfalfa for seed production.

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Nomia melanderi

Order Hymenoptera, family Halictidae. A managed solitary bee. Studied for economic reasons. Lives underground in gregarious nests, to share guard duty. Pesticides can leach into soils, into their nests.

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Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. Abundance was 11.6% in 2015.

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Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. Abundance was 11.5% in 2016.

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Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. Abundance was 2.3% in 2016.

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Scaphoideus titanus

Order Hemiptera, family Cicadellidae. A pest of grapes in Austria.

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Liriomyza trifolii

Order Diptera, family Agromyzidae. An economic pest of chrysanthemums. Larvae feed and tunnel in leaves, resulting in serpentine mines that make the leaf brittle. Females mine the leaf to oviposit. There is zero tolerance to damage in ornamentals. Develoepd extensive resistance to insecticides. May be controlled with sterile insect technique: males are sterilized as pupae, stored in cool, dry conditions, then released in greenhouses. Males can have residual fertility after irradiation, and may need increased dosage, however emergence and flight ability can be compromised.

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Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. Abundance was 27.2% in 2015, and 13.0% in 2016.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Aphelinidae. A parasitoid of aphids in Hawaii.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Braconidae. A parasitoid of aphids in Hawaii. It is the main parasite of non-mummified aphids. Thought to have out-competed Lysephlebus testaceipes, but competition was actually mediated by a generalist hyperparasitoid.

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Order Hemiptera, family Aphididae. An aphid found in Kauai and Hawaii. Parasitized by three parasitoids and two hyperparasitoids. Non-mummified aphids were parasitized mostly by Aphidius colemani, and non-mummified aphids were parasitized mostly by Syrphophagus. Parasitism level is 40%, hyperparasitism 7%, and multiparasitism 2%. There is failure to control the aphid with parasitoids, due to indirect non-targete effects of hyperparasitoids.

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Umbelliferae

The family of plants which includes carrots, celery, parsnips, dill, and parsley. Name comes from umbel inflorescences.

Order Coleoptera, family Curculionidae. A pest of fruits in Austria. Matures while feeding on flower buds. Oviposits into a closed flower bud. Larvae feed on floral organs, and flowers fail to open. Causes indirect damage. Chemical control occurs before bloom.

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Rhagoletis pomonella

Order Diptera, family Tephritidae. Females oviposit in fruit, and mark the surface with epidiectic pheromones to deter other females. The phreomone can be sprayed in orchards to prevent pest build-up.

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Spodoptera

Order Lepidoptera, family Noctuidae. A pest of turf. Can be controlled with Steinernema carpocapsae.

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Platyptilia carduidactyla

Order Lepidoptera, family Pterophoridae. A pest of artichokes. Can be controlled with Steinernema carpocapsae.

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Xylosandrus crassiusculus

Granulate ambrosia beetle (GAB)

Order Coleoptera, family Curculionidae. Attacks healthy trees. It is established in the USA, and has been identified in Ontario.

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Macrosteles quadrilineatus

Order Hemiptera, family Cicadellidae. A pest of carrots. Local populations overwinter as eggs on winter grains. Migrant adults blow in from the USA. Hatch early in May, and adults move into spring grain, grasses, vegetables, and weeds, usually appearing in June. There are a wide range of cultivated and weed hosts. Has 2 - 5 overlapping generations per year. Vectors aster yellows. Developing pesticide ressistance and living longer than expected.

Adults are greenish grey, 3 mm in length. There are six black spots on the head. It has opaque wings that expand past its body. The nymph is harder to identify. 

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Order Hemiptera, family Pentatomidae. Parasitized by Trissolcus euschistii.

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Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. Abundance was 4.5% in 2016.

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Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. A natural enemy of carrot rust fly. Abundance was 8.6% in 2016.

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Biocontrol

The reduction of pest populations by natural enemies. Implies an active human role, manipulating a natural interaction to benefit agricultural production. Can be used for insects, weeds, and diseases. Cost-effective and self-sustainable. Once established, capable of maintenance and dispersal, following pests into new environments. Compatible with other management efforts. Parasitoids and predators provide ecosystem services, reducing pest populations below an economic threshold. Historical stages include preliminary efforts, intermediary parasites, and modern period. Environmentally sound when practiced responsibly. Includes augmentative, conservation, classical, and neoclassical biological control.

Rhagoletis fausta

Order Diptera, family Tephritidae. Overwinters in the soil as pupae, and new adults emerge in late May to early July; peak emergence is mid-June. Females lay eggs in cherries as they ripen; there is zero tolerance at harvest. Monitored with yellow sticky cards and ammonium bait. Fruit protection is required from green to harvest.

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Xylosandrus germanus

Order Coleoptera, family Curculionidae. An ambrosia beetle. There have been recent issues in New York and Michigan, and it is present in Ontario. It attacks apparently healthy trees. Overwinters as adults in galleries. Active late April or early May, during forsythia bloom. Females outnumber males 10:1. Mated females colonize new trees, introducing the symbiotic fungus Ambrosia hartigii. Has two generations per year. Attracted to stressed trees by the ethanol they emit. Prefers trees less than 10 cm in diameter. Has many hosts including forest and ornamental species. Invade orchards from the edge, flying over 100 m to colonize new trees.

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Otiorhynchus sulcatus

Order Coleoptera, family Curculionidae. A healthy pupa or larva is white, but when infected with entomopathogenc nematodes it turns brown.

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Order Hemiptera, family Pentatomidae. Parasitized by Trissolcus thyantae, T. euschistii, and T. brochymenae.

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Halyomorpha halys

Order Hemiptera, family Pentatomidae. Found all over the world. Originates from East Asia, in China, Japan, Taiwan, and Korea. Bugs in North America originated from Hebei or Beijing regions of Canada. Has over 200 hosts including econonomically important field crops, fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals. Unpredictable immigration into crops. High risk hosts include apple, Asian pear, beans, bee-bee tree, edamame, eggplant, European pear, grape, hazelnut, Japanese pagoda tree, nectarine, okra, peach, Peking tree lilac, pepper, redbud, sweet corn, Swiss chard, and tomato. Adults and nymphs cause damage to fruits from the inside; damage is hard to notice on the outside. Lays eggs in masses 16 - 20 mm, hard to find, located on the underside of leaves. Identifying host eggs morphologically is only possible by rearing eggs that lack parasitoids. The bug can sometimes emerge when it has a parasitoid that fails to develop. Collected 48 egg masses, with 914 eggs total: did DNA barcoding for identification of host and parasitoid, with 100% ID success. Naturally aggregate in homes and attics for the winter, releasing aggregation pheromone; thousands can enter a house. They can squeeze through seals on doors. Over 26,000 were found in one house. Can overwinter under tree bark. When you startle or crush them they release a very horrible, bitter smell, however they do not bite. An excellent hitchhiker. It has displaced native stinkbug species. Full lifecycle occurs in a crop. Urban and natural habitats are population reservoirs. A generalist feeder, specializing in mature fruit but has a mixed diet that is adapted to landscapes with changing temporary resources. Host suitability changes over the season. Feeds on peaches from fruit set to harvest, and on apples near harvest. Has transient visits and feeding bouts in apple. Adults can fly over 2 km/day. Nymphs can walk over 25 m/day.

The size of a pinky finger nail. There are two white bands on the antennae and legs. It has a flat face with juga that doesn't extend beyond the tylus, and there is a spur behind its head. The edge of the pronotum is smooth, and the humerus is rounded.

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Nilaparvata lugens

Order Hemiptera, family Delphacidae. A pest in Indonesia that had an outbreak after indiscriminate pesticide used in 1945, and again after 1998 when there was social upheaval. Found in most Southeastern Asian countries.

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Bombus

Order Hymenoptera, family Apidae. A non-Apis bee. Important for greenhouse production of tomatoes and peppers. Live in small hives, with honey stored in pots. Colonies can have 50 to a few hundred workers. Produce their own wax for combs and pots. Can be obtained all year round. It has three peaks of visual absorption: yellow, blue, and UV.

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Bufo marinus

Originates in Central and South America. Introduced to sugarcane production systems to control cane beetle in Florida, Hawaii, the Caribbean, and Australia in 1935. It is a very large toad. It feeds on many insect species, bats, toads, and even small mammals. It is preyed upon by alligators, snakes, and dogs, however it can cause serious harm to them because it has poison glands that are toxic to many predators. A few predators have adapated. It is a huge ecological problem in Hawaii, where it is very common and is often roadkill. Many species are endemic to Hawaii, and they are threatened by cane toad.

Psila rosae

Order Diptera, family Psilidae. An economically important pest of carrots, wild and cultivated, as well as celery and parsley. In Ontario it overwinters as pupae in the soil. There are two, sometimes three generations per year: early June, mid August, and late September/early October. There has been a change in pest pressure. It has a limited host range. Produces more tunnelling than carrot weevil, but more so near the bottom (tip) of the carrot. Adults feed outside of the field, and oviposit in carrots. A concern in the Holland Marsh.

A shiny black fly with an orange head and yellow legs, 5 mm in length. Larvae are 6 - 7 mm, yellowish-white.

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Listronotus oregonensis

Order Coleoptera, family Curculionidae. A pest of carrots. Peak oviposition is mid-May to early June. Adults overwinter in the soil and plant debris, then migrate into carrot fields in the spring. Females chew a hole in the petiole or crown, and deposit 2 - 3 eggs before sealing the cavity. Larvae develop inside the carrot, creating feeding tunnels before pupating in the soil. Has 1 - 2 generations per year. There has been a shift in oviposition period and second generation. It has developed resistance to Imidan. It can overwinter as an adult in the field; conditions kill off most, but some survive. Damage is cavities near the top of the carrot, which are difficult to excise from the root in processing, making carrots unmarketable. Starting to attack even very young plants.

Adults are 6 mm in length, tan with dark brown blotches. Larvae are yellowish cream, legless, with a brown head.

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Oulema melanopus

Order Coleoptera, family Chrysomelidae. A pest of cereals in Austria.

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Rhagoletis cingulata

Order Diptera, family Tephritidae. Overwinters in the soil as pupae, and adults emerge in late May to early July; peak emergence is late June. One generation per year. Females lay eggs in cherries as they ripen; there is zero tolerance at harvest. Monitored with yellow sticky cards and ammonium bait. Fruit protection is required from green to harvest.

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M.Sc. candidate

Working on a comprehensive inventory of native bee species. Looking at plant-pollinator interactions and differences in bee communities and guilds between sites and over time. Did work on measuring pollinator diversity.

Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. Abundance was 2.3% in 2015, and 1.6% in 2016.

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Order Hemiptera, family Miridae. A non-target host of Peristenus, preyed upon mostly by P. pallipes.

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Clothianidin

A group 4A insecticide registered for control of brown marmorated stink bug. Provides suppression. Two applications works for 7 days.

Cydia pomonella

Order Lepidoptera, family Tortricidae. Can be controlled using mating disruption. Successfully controlled with sterile insect technique in BC in Okanagan since 1982. In Okanagan the valley is surrounded by mountains, keeping the sterile moths in the valley. A pest of fruits in Austria.

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Leptinotarsa decemlineata

Order Coleoptera, family Chrysomelidae. A pest of potatoes in Austria.

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Commonwealth Institute for Biological Control (CIBC)

Established in 1947. All biological control projects in Canada must go through this organization. Located in Delémont, Switzerland. In close collaboration with Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, and Canadian Forest Service. They hire summer interns.

Order Diptera, family Tachinidae. A parasitoid of gypsy moth. Introduced in eastern USA in 1906. Established quickly, but failed to prevent or reduce gypsy moth outbreaks, yet release continued into the 1970s. It is multivoltine. It overwinters within a larval host. A highly polyphagous generalist, with around 200 host species in Europe. A dominant parasitoid of forest lepidopterans. It caused decline of several giant silk moth species. This type of failure would not occur today, due to new regulations.

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Chrysoteuchia topiaria

Order Lepidoptera, family Crambidae. A pest of cranberries. Can be controlled wtih Steinernema carpocapsae.

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Order Diptera, family Cecidomyiidae. A parasitoid of aphids in Hawaii.

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Phylum Nematoda, class Secernentea, order Rhabditida, families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae, genera Sterinernema, Neosterinernema, and Heterorhabditis. A parasitic nematode. Has an egg stage, four juvenile stages, a pre-infective juvenile (PI) stage, and an infective juvenile (IJ) stage before adult stage. Eah species is in a symbiotic relationship with a single bacterial species that is carried in a special gut pouch. The EPN enters an insect through the anus, mouth, or spiracles. The bacteria is excreted from the nematode through anus or mouth, and migrates into the insect's intestine and hemolymph, releasing toxins that kill the insect in 24 - 48 hours. The bacteria transform the host into an environment stuiable for growth and reproduction of the EPN: disables immune response by killing the insect, transforms its tissues into food, and itself provides food for the nematode. The EPN reproduces within the host's body, which eventually bursts open with IJs. The bacteria cannot survive in the soil, and depends on the nematode for protection, vectoring to insect hosts, and compromising of the host's immunity. Used as classical, conservation, and augmentative BCAs. Produced in vivo in larvae, or in vitro in beef kidney or fat, in a sponge with emulsification and liquid fermentation. This can produce 10¹² IJs each month, in 80,000 L. There is some secrecy around the exact method of production. Applied as clay granules, in a spray, or in micro-irrigation. Move through the soil along spaces between soil particles; best movement is in sandy loam. Global market shares were $16.2 million in 2003, and $13.8 million in 2009; it has not been embraced. Application must be synchronized with host life cycle, preferably on a cloudy day with no rain. Four sequential steps in host selection process:

1. Habitat

2. Host-finding

3. Host acceptance

4. Host suitability

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/homepage.html?locale=en

A source of European regulation and legislature information.

Rhagoletis cerasi

Order Diptera, family Tephritidae. Originates from mainland Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia. A pest of Prunus fruits: sweet, sour, black, and mahaleb cherries, as well as honeysuckle, Lonicera. A photo was taken of one by an amateur entomologist in a park in Mississauga. There was a follow-up survey by CFIA in summer 2016 in Toronto and main cherry production areas of Ontario including Hamilton. This was the first detection in North America. It is a regulated and quarantined pest in Canada and USA. Exports of Ontario cherries to the USA is limited, but BC exports over $35 million in cherries. There are now phytosanitary requirements. Impact to IPM is undetermined. Similar biology to cherry fruit fly and black cherry fruit fly, but possibly attack earlier, in green and yellow fruit. Damage may be confused with spotted wing drosophila.

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Ostrinia nubilalis

Order Lepidoptera, family Crambidae. A pest of corn in Austria.

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ec.europa.eu/eurostat/home

A source of European agricultural information.

Order Hemiptera, family Pentatomidae. Parasitized by Trissolcus thyantae.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Platygastridae. A dominant parasitoid species in Europe. Targets orange wheat blossom. Released in the late 1980s.

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A measure of the differences in abundance between species. Takes abundance and richness into account. Important for ecosystem health. A diversity index.

E = H / (ln S)

H = Shannon diversity index

S = number of species

Spodoptera frugiperda

Order Lepidoptera, family Noctuidae. Causes damage in South Africa where it is one of many invasive pests that plague the country.

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M.Sc candidate

Advisor is Cynthia Scott-Dupree. Did work on solitary bees, non-target effects, and risk assessment.

Daktulosphaira vitifoliae

Order Hemiptera, family Phylloxeroidea. A pest of grapes in Austria.

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Acrosternum hilare

Order Hemiptera, family Pentatomidae. Parasitized by Trissolcus euschistii and T. brochymenae.

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Trialeurodes vaporiorum

A highly destructive greenhouse pest.

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Lymantria dispar dispar

Order Lepidoptera, family Erebidae. Univoltine. Overwinters as eggs. Introduced to North America from Eurasia in 1869. Caused $800 million in damage to the forestry industry. From 1905 - 1911 there was foreign exploration of Europe for natural enemies, and release of several biocontrol agents. It is still a problem.

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hannah.fraser@ontario.ca

A horticultural entomologist. Works for OMAFRA in Guelph. Used to be the graduate student of Prof. Scott-Dupree. Did a lot of work on monitoring and outreach for spotted wing drosophila.

Apis

Order Hymenotpera, family Apidae. Economically important and well-known. Produce hive products including honey, beeswax, and propolis. Pollinate many crops including canola, blueberries, tomatoes, almonds, and apples. Especially good at pollination because their entire life is dependent on pollen and nectar. Pollination is valued at $20 billion US. Bee decline in the media is focused almoste exclusively on honey bees. Not native to North America, and do not contribute much to bee diveristy. Insecticide risk assessment is rigorously applied for certain pesticides, and risky formulations are not marketed. Very well established, with a wealth of literature. Produce their own wax for combs and pots. Colonies are at most 8,000 individuals, greater than other types of bees. Large colony size means they can take considerable losses without severe impact to the colony. Foraging range is 10 km. Lifespan depends on time of brith: individuals born in the spring or summer have reduced lifespan. Not fond of certain flowers such as cone-shaped flowers or flowers with tricking mechanisms, and can be side pollinators.

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Orius insidiosus

Minute pirate bug

A predatory bug used as a BCA against western flower thrip. Can be negatively impacted by insecticides. A generalist polyphagous predator that feeds on all stages of thrips, aphids, whiteflies, mites, lepidopteran eggs, pollen, and plant sap. It has five nymphal instars. One bug can eat 11.5 - 12.1 thrips each day, but it kills more prey than it consumes in high thrip density. It holds its prey in place with front legs and uses its rostrum to inject digestive enzymes, then sucks out the body contents of its prey through the rostrum. Found to feed on the larvae of spotted wing drosophila.

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1888 - 1955

The second stage of biological control. There were more discriminating biological control egents involved in movement of natural enemies. In 1919 USDA established a laboratory in France to look for European biocontrol agents. There was a drop in activity during WWII, when there were cheap synthetic insecticides. There was little concern for non-target effects, with most resources put into foreign exploiration of natural enemies. Few resources were invested in assessing efficacy and host specificity. There was a "more is better" approach. Success was not guaranteed, and many projects failed, with serious long-term ecological consequences that have jaded perception of the efficacy and safety of biological control.

M.Sc. candidate

Did work on conservation of natural enemies.

Ampulex compressa

Order Hymenoptera, family Ampulicidae. A parasitoid of cockroaches. The adult female paralyzes a cockroach with a sting to the thorax, then impairs its ability to initiate movement with a sting to the brain. She then leads the cockroach to her nest, by pulling its antenna. She then lays an egg on the cockroach and seals it within a nest. The cockroach doesn't die until larvae emerge. Hatched larvae feed on the cockroach for days before pupating within its abdomen.

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Methomyl

A group 1A insecticide registered for control of brown marmorated stink bug. Provides control. One application works for 8 days.

Order Hemiptera, family Miridae. A non-target host of Peristenus, preyed on mostly by P. pallipes.

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Order Thysanoptera, family Thripidae. A pest of cereals in Austria.

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Linear particle accelerator

A highly precise dose delivery system for irradiating males in sterile insect technique. Also used for pet cancer treatments, at doses 40 times lower.

Order Hemiptera, family Miridae. A non-target host of Peristenus, preyed on mostly by P. pallipes.

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Order Hemiptera, family Miridae. An ecological equivalent of tarnished plant bug, found in Europe. Attacked by several mutlivoltine parasitoids, for well-synchronized control that prevents outbreaks, and keeps damage below an economic threshold. There is interest in introducing its parastioids to North America, for neoclassical biological control of tarnished plant bug.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Braconidae. A parasitoid of aphids that was released in Hawaii and was prevalent on Kauai until 10 years ago, when Aphidius colemani was released. Thought to have competitioin with A. colemani, but was competition was actually mediated by generalist hyperparsitoids.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Pteromalidae. A dominant parasitoid species in Europe. Targets orange wheat blossom midge. Introduced along with this pest. Has 30 - 80% parasitism.

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M.Sc.

Did work on sterile insect technique.

Order Coleoptera, family Scarabaeidae. A pest of grapes in Austria.

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1956 - present

The latest stage of biological control. Interest in ecology and understanding of biological control as a core component of IPM. In 1983, concerns raised regarding introductions of biological control agents and possible extinction of native secies. There are legislative guidelines and research into non-target effects of BCAs. In the 1980s, non-target effects became a hot topic. In the mid-1990s, it became a requirement to have host specificity testing, as an integral part of classical biological control programs. Strict regulations govern the import and release of candidate biological control agents in most countries. Target and non-target host range testing in the field (ecological host range) and the laboratory (physiological host range). Molecular tools are integrated including DNA sequencing and barcoding, and molecular diagnostics using species-specific markers. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand are world leaders in non-target assessment of biological control agents.

Surveillance

A use for sex pheromones. Pheromone traps can detect pests even at low densities. Important for determining economic thresholds. Inexpensive.

Dendroctonus ponderosae

Order Coleoptera, family Curculionidae. Aggregation pheromones cis- and trans-verbenol attract males to traps around an area that needs to be protected, for early detection. Lindgren traps are used in parks, private property, sawmills, and seed cone orchards.

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Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. Abundance was 8.5% in 2015.

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Thrips tabaci

Order Thysanoptera, family Thripidae. A pest of vegetables in Austria.

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Sitodiplosis mosellana

Order Diptera, family Cecidomyiidae. Native to Europe, but its distribution include North America, Russia, and China, Reported in Quebec in 1828, in western Canada in 1901, and in the Pacific Northwest in 1945. A major outbreak occurred in northeastern Saskatchewan in 1983, causing $30 million in crop losses in spring wheat. Biological, ecological, and agronomic studies began in 1984. Use of biological control reduces pesticide applications, saving farmers money, around $10 - 30 milion per year, from 1991 to 2001. There are 27 parasitoid species in Europe, including Macroglenes penetrans, Platygaster, and Euxestonotus error.

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Osmia lignaria

Order Hymenoptera, family Megachilidae. A managed solitary bee. Studied for economic reasons. Collects soil to build its nest.

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Grapholita molesta

Order Lepidoptera, family Tortricidae. Can be controlled using mating disruption. There are twist-tie and clip type products.

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Order Hemiptera, family Aphididae. An aphid found in Kauai in Hawaii. Parasitized by three parasitoids and two hyperparaistoids.

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Anthonomus eugenii

Order Coleoptera, family Curculionidae. A developing situation in Ontario. A severe pest of sweet and hot peppers in the southern USA, Mexico, and Central America. Subtropical: does not overwinter in Ontario in normal conditions. Found in BC in 1992 and in Ontario in 2010, in pepper greenhouses. Risks of pepper imports and co-mingling. Not a regulated pest in Canada or most USA states (except New Mexico). Adults are long-lived, with overlapping generations: there is no diapause. A mobile pest, good hitchhiker with rapid development time, taking 2 weeks to develop in optimal conditions. Access to food sources in protected areas allows them to overwinter; this is a community problem. Often hide during greenhouse cleanings, and can survive for a long time without food. There was an infestation with insufficient management in some operations in the fall and winter of 2015 - 2016. Spread from greenhouses to fields; there was insufficient communication betwen growers. Significant nummbers in greenhouses in 2016, with multiple countries affected. Infested pepper fields later in the season. Reproduces on peppers, nightshade, and eggplant. Prefers young plants. Feeds and survives on tomatoes and other Solanaceae plants/weeds. The female oviposits on the fruit and larvae enter and are protected inside, where they pupate. Causes similar damage as codling moth. Intensive monitoring and scouting has high additional costs which may not be sustainable.

2.0 - 3.5 mm in length, 1.5 - 1.8 mm wide. The body is strongly arched, and it has a long, stout beak. The thorax and elytra are mostly covered with small scales. It is mahogany to nearly black in colour. There is a spur on the underside of the femur on all 6 legs.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Braconidae. Includes P. digoneutis, P. relictus, and P. pallipes, which were considered for release to control tarnished plant bug. This requires ecological host range data. There was a large study involving collection of non-target hosts across a broad geographic range in Europe, near Germany: 20,000 specimens of 18 species, half reared and half multiplexed for PCR and molecular analysis. Focused on 3 non-target species.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Braconidae. A parasitoid of tarnished plant bug. It oviposits into the bug as it is feeding. It was considered for release in Canada in the early 2000s, for control in alfalfa, red clover, strawberry, and canola. It attacked the target host most specifically. It was successfully introduced and established in the USA. It was released from 2000 - 2005 near London, Ontario, and became established in 2005. There was additional release in strawberry fields up until 2008, with aroudn 15,000 parasitoids released.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Braconidae. Considered for release to control tarnished plant bug. It has a broad host range and is widespread. Caused high levels of pupal mortality.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Platygastridae. A dominant genus of parasitoids in Europe. Targets orange wheat blossom midge. Released in the late 1980s.

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Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. Abundance was 24.2% in 2015, and 13.0% in 2016.

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Ceutorhynchus assimilis

Order Coleoptera, family Curculionidae. A pest of Brassicaceae crops including rape and cabbage in Austria. Oviposits into the stem of the plant. Larvae feed inside, causing the stem to bend and burst open. Can lead to secondary infections. Monitored with yellow pan traps, and warning services. Chemical control occurs before oviposition, with pyrethroids. Action threshold is 10 weevils/trap in 3 days from February - April.

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Donor

The organism which senses semiochemicals. It is the insect pest.

Orseolia oryzae

Order Diptera, family Cecidomyiidae. A pest in Indonesia that was targeted in 1945.

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Cochliomyia

Order Diptera, family Calliphoridae. The first insect successfully controlled with sterile insect technique, on an island in the 1950s.

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A widely used diversity index. Assumes that individuals are randomly sampled from an indefinitely large population, and that all species are represented in a sample. Value is usually 3.5 - 4.5. The higher the value, the greater the diversity.

H = - Σ^S_{(i = 1)} p_i ln p_i

S = number of species

p_i = proportion of total samples belonging to the i^th species.

Eurygaster maura

Order Hemiptera, family Scutelleridae. A pest of cereals in Austria.

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Bemisia tabaci

Order Hemiptera, family Aleyrodidae. Can be controlled with hot water immersion baths; the hotter the better.

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Emitter

Transmitter

The organism which produces semiochemicals. Can be a plant or another insect.

Multiplex PCR

A DNA-based technique. Finds unique areas of DNA sequences for species of interest. Requires design of species-specific PR primers to amplify specific segments. Identifies unknown or unidentified species of host and parasitoid, based on length of fragments.

Podisus maculiventris

Order Hemiptera, family Pentatomidae. Parasitized by Trissolcus euschistii.

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Drosophila suzukii

Cherry vinegar fly

Order Diptera, family Drosophilidae. A vinegar fly, related to the common fruit fly. Has adaptations which make it unique. A direct pest of a wide range of soft-skinned and stone fruits. Hosts include: strawberries, blackberries, blueberries, raspberries, elderberries, mulberries, cherries, peaches, plums, apricots, grapes, persimmons, apples, nectarines, pears, and plums. Wild hosts include buckthorn, dogwood, brambles, nightshade, honeysuckle, black elder, pokeweed, and pin cherry. Can sometimes oviposit in cracked or damaged tomatoes or oranges, or flowers, in the absence of ideal hosts. It appears first in wild hosts. Very invasive and opportunistic. It is associated with the smell of rotting fruit. Feeds on wild fruit early in the season, and becomes established. Oviposits in intact, unripe, healthy fruit prior to harvest, causing damage that makes fruit unmarketable, and can lead to entry of pathogens and secondary pests. Has a serrated ovipositor which is not found in other fruit flies. Damage can go unrecognized, mistaken for old, bruised, overheated, or overripe fruit. Eggs hatch in 2 hours to 3 days. There are three larval instars, and it pupates in 3 - 13 days, and emerges 3 - 15 days later as adults which can live up to 59 days. Average total lifespan is 86 days. One generation takes 8 - 10 days at 25ºC, and 21 - 25 days at 15ºC. Can double population in 4 days. Overwinter in hoop houses and other protected areas. A female can produce 630 offspring. Populations peak in late summer and early fall. Activity is decreased outside of the range of 10 - 30ºC. Can complete 3 - 9 generations on one season. A pest of fruits in Austria.

2 - 3 mm, with reddish eyes and a gold/yellow body. Males have a single spot near the wing margin, and two rows of dark tarsal combs with 3 - 6 teeth on each of the front legs. Females have a large serrated ovipositor that protrudes from the body, which it uses to damage fruits. It has short stubby antennae, and unbroken bands at the edge of each abdominal segment. Easy to identify with a microscope.

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Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. Abundance was 19.1% in 2015, and 7.3% in 2016.

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Sterile insect release

A genetic control strategy. Birth control for insects. Introduces sterility into a wild insect population using irradiated, sterile males. Used for American serpentine leaf miner. Sterile males will not likely damage and crop, and sterility is easily and quickly introduced to populations with males. Males supply millions of sterile sperm with potential to spread fertility faster than sterile females with non-viable eggs. Separating out males critical for SIT. Males are sterilized with X-ray or γ-ray irradiator that causes germ cell damage and double-stranded breaks in chromosomes. Cobalt 60 can be used, or LINAC. The males mate but the eggs they sire are unviable. Males need to be able to compete with fertile males. Leave behind no pesticide residues. Sterilized insects do not emit radiation. Can supplement other controls. Compatible with biocontrol programs. Specific to target species, with no adverse effect to beneficial insects including pollinators. Requires repeated release, and efficacy increases with each release. Target pests do not develop resistance. Sterile insects can be mass produced at a cost of a few cents each. A potential control strategy for pepper weevil; challenge is in rearing pepper weevil. Used in codling moth in BC. Experiments done during development: laboratory culture of the pest; dosimetry and irradiation set-up studies; dosage studies to sterilize males, including adult emergence and reciprocal crosses to verify non-viability of progeny; determination of fitness of males, retaining competitive behaviours allowing for mating to occur, such as flight and mate seeking.

Acalymma vittatum

Order Coleoptera, family Chrysomelidae. It is attracted by the kairomone cucurbitacin.

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Contarinia nasturtii

Order Diptera, family Cecidomyiidae. Has a three-component sex pheromone that is inexpensive to produce.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Encyrtidae. A hyperparasitoid of aphids in Hawaii. It is the main parasite of mummified aphids. Prevents parasitoids from regulating aphids. Introduction of new aphid parasitoids gave it a wider host range, making it stronger.

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Lygus

Order Hemiptera, family Miridae. A serious pest of alfalfa, cotton, fruit, and vegetables. Native to North America. Commonly controlled in alfalfa by mowing the entire field, but they move within 24 hours into high value crops such as cotton and strawberry, becoming serious pests. An alternative is strip mowing of alfalfa, and interplanting alfalfa as a trap crop in strawberry. Damage results from feeding by nymphs and adults; it injects its saliva into the plant, and can cause distorted fruits. It is multivoltine. Native parasitoids have ineffective control because they are univoltine. Can be controlled with a bug vacuum. AAFC and CABIA had a program to control it using European Braconidae parasitoids Peristenus digoneutis and P. relictus. A pest of vegetables in Austria.

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Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. A natural enemy of carrot rust fly.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Platygastridae. A parasitoid of brown marmorated stink bug. Not a specific predator, and may attack beneficial stink bugs. Found in the USA. May have been introduced with BMSB, in egg masses.

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Tetranychus urticae

Class Arachnida. A beneficial predator that is harmed by pyrethroid insecticides, leading to pest resurgences.

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Order Hymenoptera, family Braconidae. An important natural enemy of pepper weevil in Mexico. Potentially may be shipped to Canada as a BCA. Must be screened for specificity. 

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Rodolia cardinalis

Order Coleoptera, family Coccinellidae. Introduced to the USA from Australia in 1888 for control of cottony cushion scale. Credited with saving the California citrus industry.

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Hyphantria cunea

Order Lepidoptera, family Erebidae. A pest of turf. Can be controlled with Steinernema carpocapsae.

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Diabrotica virgifera virgifera

Order Coleoptera, family Chrysomelidae. A pest of corn in Austria. Invasive to Europe, arriving in Serbia in 1992 during a war. Has been in Austria since 2002, where it was a quarantined pest until 2014, when it became impossible to eradicate. The most important pest in Europe. Monitored with pheromone traps. Controlled with crop rotation and supporting plant growth with fertilization and irrigation. No seed treatments are registered. Chemical controls target adults. BCAs include Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and potentially entomopathogenic fungi. Choose cultivars bred for resistance, or with strong root growth.

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Frankliniella occidentalis

Order Thysanoptera, family Thripidae. A highly destructive greenhouse pest. May be controlled in all life stages with hot water immersion baths. Eggs are not controlled by horticultural oil immersion baths. Adults can be controlled with insecticidal soap immersion baths. A problem in chrysanthemums. Often brought into Canada on plant cuttings from USA. Eggs take 96 hours to hatch. A pest of vegetables in Austria.

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Zabrus tenebrioides

Order Coleoptera, family Carabidae. A pest of cereals except oats in Austria. Found only in Europe and the Middle East. An occasional pest. Lives underground in tunnels where it is protected from contact poisons. Larvae feed on young plants, fraying leaves, pulling leaf tips into tunnels, and forming clusters. First damage occurs in the fall with first larval instars. The second larval instar overwinters, and causes more damage in the spring. Can be controlled with crop rotation and stomach poisons. The action threshold in winter wheat in the fall is 4 - 5 damaged plants/m², and in the spring 8 - 10 damaged plants/m².

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