Alexander the Great 

Macedonian ruler who established Greek Empire over whole of Middle East from Indus to Nile.

Aristotle

Ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. Disciple of Plato but developed very different philosophy dominant in Europe in late Middle Ages.

Ashoka 

Ruler of Mauryan Empire at its peak in 4th century BC. Converted to Buddhism.

Augustine of Hippo 

Christian bishop of around AD 400, ritings influenced mainstream Christian theology for next 1,000 years.

Augustus

First Roman emperor, 27 BC to AD 14.

Caesar, Julius 

Former supporter of Marius who conquered Gaul and then got support of poor when he seized dictatorial power in 49 BC, assassinated 44 BC.

Constantine

Roman emperor of early 4th century AD who moved capital of empire to Byzantium and made Christianity official religion.

Gracchus, Caius 

Reformer who became hero of Roman peasantry in 120s BC. Like his brother, murdered by rich.

Gracchus, Tiberius 

Reformer who became hero of Roman peasantry in 130s BC, murdered by rich.

Josephus

Jewish leader of revolt against Rome who switched sides and then wrote famous history.

Justinian

Emperor of Byzantium mid-6 th century AD. Tried to reconquer Italy and north Africa. Oversaw completion of Saint Sophia cathedral.

Marius

General who used support of poor to push for power in Rome around 100 BC.

Octavian

Later Roman emperor Augustus, nephew of Julius Caesar.

Paul, Saint

Saul of Tarsus, Jew with Roman citizenship, converted to Christianity. Responsible for spread of Christianity across Greek and Roman worlds and for most of its doctrines.

Plato

Ancient Greek philosopher, disciple of Socrates. His views influenced Christian theology from 5th to 14th centuries.

Sargon

First ruler to establish empire over all of Fertile Crescent, around 2300 BC.

Spartacus

Leader of best known slave revolt in ancient Rome.

Sulla

Roman general of 1st century BC, used vicious repression to break opponents and poor.

Aegean

Sea and islands to east and south east of Greece. Also sometimes used for Bronze Age civilisation of mainland Greece.

Assyria

Area in what is today southern Turkey centre of great Middle Eastern empire in 7th century BC.

Byzantium

its on stretch of water connecting Mediterranean to Black Sea. From 4th century on called Constantinople and, from late 15th century Istanbul. Also name given to Greek speaking remnant of Roman Empire from 5th to 15th centuries.

Fertile Crescent 

Region of Middle East including Palestine, Lebanon, northern Syria and most of Iraq.

Harappa

Third millennium BC city on Indus.

Indus Valley 

Today eastern part of Pakistan, close to Indian border.

Knossos

Site of palace of Crete civilisation of 2000 to 1500 BC.

Lagash

City state in third millennium BC Mesopotamia

Mahagda 

State in 6th century BC northern India that led to Mauryan Empire.

Meso-America 

Region including Mexico and Guatemala.

Mesopotamia

Old name for what is now Iraq. Literally means ‘between two rivers’ – i.e. valley of Euphrates and Tigris.

Mohenjo-dero 

Third millennium BC city on Indus.

Nubia

Region of southern Egypt and northern Sudan.

Phoenicia

Name for coast of Lebanon in ancient world.

Saqqara 

Few miles south east of modern Cairo, where first pyramids and tombs built.

Sparta

City state on southern mainland of ancient Greece, historic rival of Athens.

Sumer

Name for Mesopotamian civilisation of third century BC.

Teotihuacan

City and name of civilisation built in first centuries AD close to present day Mexico City.

Thebes 

Ancient Egyptian city capital in Middle and New Kingdoms, close to present day Luxor (also, confusingly name of an ancient Greek city state).

Uruk 

City state in 3rd millennium BC Mesopotamia.

Yangtze 

Great river running west to east across middle of China. Enters sea near Shanghai.

Yellow River 

Great river running southwards then west to east across northern China. Centre of first Chinese civilisations. Has changed course with catastrophic results historically.

Acropolis

Hill overlooking Athens on which stands the Parthenon, a temple built in 6th century BC.

Ahimsa

Non-violence in Buddhism and some versions of Hinduism

Arianism

Version of Christianity very influential in 5th century AD which disagreed with Catholicism on interpretation of trinity.

Aryans

People who invaded north India around 1500 BC. Spoke an Indo-European language. Not be confused with ‘Arian’ heresy prevalent in 5th century AD Christianity.

Bantu 

Family of languages spoken in west, central and southern Africa

Bronze Age 

Term sometimes used to describe period of urban revolution in Eurasia and Africa.

Form of social organisation in which people are born into a specific social category from which they cannot (in theory) escape. Associated with Hinduism. Hierarchy of castes often, in practice, cuts across hierarchy based on class power, so that today not all upper-caste Hindus are rich, although the great majority of the members of the lowest castes are poor.

Ch’in

Empire that united northern China in 221 BC.

Chieftainship

Anthropologists’ term for society in which some people have higher standing than others but there is no clear division into class and no separate state.

Chou 

Dynasty that ran a loose ‘feudal’ empire in China after about 1100 BC.

Confucianism 

Ideology dominant among bureaucratic and landowning class in China through most of last 2,000 years.

Han 

Dynasty that ruled China from 206 BC to AD 220. Also term sometimes used to refer to ethnic Chinese as opposed to other inhabitants of the country

Helots

Serfs working land in ancient Sparta.

Hyksos 

People who attacked Egypt around 1700 to 1600 BC, usually considered to be from Palestine.

Latifundia

Term for large landed estates in both ancient Rome and modern Latin America.

Lineage 

Form of social organisation which links people on basis of blood relationships – also called ‘clan’ or ‘gens’.

Manicheism 

Religion founded by Mani in 3rd century AD which combined Christian, Buddhist and Zoroastrian notions

Materialism 

View which denies that spirit or thought can exist independently of material existence.

Maurya 

Empire that united most of present day India in 4th century BC.

Mayas

Inhabitants of southern Mexico and Guatemala who established civilisation from about AD 700.

Middle Kingdom 

Egypt from about 2000 to 1780 BC.

Mycenae 

Civilisation on southern mainland of Greece about 1500 BC.

Neolithic 

Literally ‘new Stone Age’, involves use of sophisticated stone and wooden tools, and pottery.

Neolithic revolution 

Introduction of new way of life based on these tools, involving living in large villages and simple agriculture

New Kingdom 

Egypt from 1550 to 1075 BC.

Old Kingdom 

First civilisation in Egypt from 3000 to about 2100 BC.

Oligarchy

Ancient Greek term meaning ‘rule by a few’.

Olmec

First civilisation to arise in Mexico and Guatemala, in last millennium BC.

Pastoralists

Societies based on herding of cattle, sheep, camels or llamas.

Patriarchy

Term for society structured around households under the domination of the most senior males, who tell other males, women and servants what to do. Misused by many feminists to apply to all societies with women’s oppression.

Patricians

Hereditary ruling elite in early period of Roman republic.

Plebeians 

Ordinary citizens of early Roman Republic, owning small amounts of land. Used in later times to describe poorer section of urban population, or simply those of lower class upbringing.

Semitic

Name for a family of languages originating in the Middle East, including Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic. Often applied to peoples originating in the region, especially Jews. Hence also ‘anti-Semitic’.

Serfs

Peasants who are half free, working some of the land on their own behalf but compelled to provide either unpaid labour, goods-in-kind or money payments to a lord whose land they are not allowed to leave.

Shang 

Earliest dynasty to rule an empire in China, around 1600 BC.

Sudras

Indian caste associated with toiling on the land. In ancient four-caste system below priests, warriors and cultivators, but above ‘out-castes’.

Taoism 

Popular religious ideology in China through much of last 2,500 years. Associated with various magical beliefs, but also could encourage practical experimentation.

Tribute

Sum of money levied from people of a conquered country.

Urban revolution 

Term for transformation of society that involved rise of classes, state, towns, and often metallurgy and literacy.

Vedic

Ancestor of present day Hindu religion, involved sacrifice of cattle.    

Zapotecs  

People in southern Mexico who established Monte Alban civilisation after AD 500.

Zoroastrianism

Religion of Iran before rise of Islam. Involves belief in eternal struggle between good and evil. Survives today among small Parsee communities in Indian subcontinent.