Mean annual temperature: between -50 and -5 degrees Celcius.

Location tendency: Continental Interiors.

It's up to 700m thick in Northern Canada, 1500m thick in Siberia.

Mean annual temperature: Between -5 and -1.5 degrees Celcius.

Location tendency: Further south, near water bodies.

Mean Annual Temperature: Between -1.5 and 0 degrees Celcius.

Location tendency: Where temperature is above 0 in the summer.

Associated with mass movement of the Earth.

Open-system: Water is from a distant elevated source.

Closed-system: Supply of water is local, and the pingo is formed as a result of the expansion of permafrost.

- Permafrost cover

- Low temperatures limit decomposition, therefore pollution (i.e. oil spills) stick around longer.

- Limited number and diversity of species.

1. Continental (or Polar, or Cold): related to high LATITUDE. [Last three letters of continental and first three letters of latitude are the same] -remnants of the Ice Ages; remaining in high latitudes. At their max extent, a maximum of 30% of the earth was covered by them.

2. Alpine (or Temperate): related to high ALTITUDE. [Alpine and Altitude start with the same first two letters].

1. Niche - Small, fill hollows on north-facing slopes in the Northern Hemisphere.

2. Cirque - Larger than Niche, but relatively small masses of ice in circular shaped hollows or basins in mountains. Often overflow to feed valley glaciers.

3. Valley - Large masses of ice which move down from either an icefield or a cirque basin source. Usually follow former river courses; steep sides.

4. Piedmont - Formed when valley extends onto lowland areas, spread out and merge.

Glacial movements occurs in the following scenarios (choose the best answer):

1. Greatest at point of (ablation/accumulation/equilibrium) where volume of ice is great.

2. Areas of high (snowfall/light exposure/precipitation) and (ablation/accumulation).

3. In (smaller/larger) glaciers which are more impacted by (short-term/long-term) ______________.

4. Where climate is more (warm/cold/temperate/diverse), which leads to more (calving/retreat/meltwater).

5. Areas where the (slope/gradient/angle) is steep.

1. Greatest at point of EQUILIBRIUM where volume of ice is great.

2. Areas of high SNOWFALL and ABLATION.

3. In SMALLER glaciers which are more impacted by SHORT-TERM CLIMATE FLUCTUATIONS.

4. Where climate is more TEMPERATE, which leads to more MELTWATER.

5. Areas where the GRADIENT is steep.

33% total.

14% live between -20 and -40, 15% live between -40 and -100, and 4% live at extreme aridity (no precipitation for 12 consecutive months)

Which of the following are reasons why deserts are located where they are?

Rainshadow effect               Rainsplash erosion 
  Mid-Continent Effect-Dry           Magic School Bus Pollution 
 Latitude range             Longitude range 
    Altitude range              Sunshadow effect 
West coasts              North coasts 
    Aridity                   Biodiversity

1. Latitude range - Majority of deserts are located within 15-30 degrees N and S, coincides with the descending side of the Hadley cell. Example: Sahara.

2. Rainshadow effect. Ex: Atacama.

3. Mid-Continent Effect-Dry, far away from rain bearing winds. Ex: Gobi

4. On west coasts of continents where cold upwelling ocean currents exist, and any air that crosses the current is cooled and its capacity to hold moisture is reduced. Ex. Namib

2-3 of these in effect simultaneously result in a very dry desert.

Suspension (<0.15mm) - Particles are light enough to be carried substantial distances.

Saltation (0.15mm-0.25mm) - A rolling particle gains sufficient velocity for it to leave the sand surface in "jumps".

Surface Creep (0.25mm-2.0mm) - Larger grains are dislodged by saltating grains.

There are two types of wind erosion (Choose the best answer):

Deflation: Progressive (addition/removal) of small material leaving behind larger materials, results in (stony desert/rocky desert/sandy desert). May remove sand to form (deflation/ablation/inflation) hollow.

Abrasion: Erosion by (land-bound/wind-borne/underground/aqueous) particles, which act like sandpaper, smoothing surfaces and exploiting weaker rock. Usually occurs within a (mm/cm/10cm/m) of the surface, since this is where heavy particles are lifted. Results include yardangs, zeugens, ventifacts.

Deflation: Progressive REMOVAL of small material leaving behind larger materials, results in STONY DESERTS (REGS). May remove sand to form DEFLATION hollow.

Abrasion: Erosion by WIND-BORNE particles, which act like sandpaper, smoothing surfaces and exploiting weaker rock. Usually occurs within a METER of the surface, since this is where heavy particles are lifted. Results include yardangs, zeugens, ventifacts.

1. Rain (it is low and irregular, which is normal, but there are occasional flash floods.)

2. Deflation may expose water to create oasis

3. Rivers.

These are the three types of rivers that flow through deserts. Match each term to a definition and and example:

Terms: Endoreic, Ephemeral, Exogenous(Exotic).

Definitions: 1. Those that have a source elsewhere than the desert. 2. Flow seasonally or after storms. 3. Drain into an inland lake or sea.

Examples: The Nile, The River Jordan. (There is no given example for Ephemeral.)

Exotic/Exogenous: Those that have a source elsewhere than the desert. For example, the Nile, which is fed by the White Nile.

Endoreic: Drains into an inland lake or sea. Example: River Jordan, which feeds the Dead Sea.

Ephemeral: Flows seasonally, or after storms.

Note: Questions asking about ephemeral rivers should be answered with reference to flash floods and wadis.

Match these terms to their definition:

Pavement, Playa, Hamada.

1. Alkaline flat plain overlain by salt deposits. Sometimes called salt pan. Looks beach-like, adjacent to a wadi and a fan.

2. Underlying rock; silt and sand removed. 

3. Flats of bare rock. Wind erosion has removed loose sand, small regolith.

Playa: Alkaline flat plain overlain by salt deposits. Sometimes called salt pan. Looks beach-like, adjacent to a wadi and a fan.

Pavement: Underlying rock; silt and sand removed. [Playa still has material present above pavement - may evolve from playa to pavement as wind erodes.]

Hamada: Flats of bare rock. Wind erosion has removed loose sand, small regolith.

1. Sandy (Erg) - 20% of deserts, including parts of Sahara, Namib.

2. Rocky (Hamada) - Bare/bedrock. Ex: Atacama, Sahara, Australian deserts.

3. Stony (Reg) - Boulders, gravel, pavement. Most deserts, including Algeria.

4. Badlands - Semi-arid regions. Mostly created by water erosion after a violent sandstorm. Extensive ravines, gullies. From Alberta to Arizona.

Theres a few possible definitions:

-Process of land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climate variations and human activities. It contributes to other environmental crises such as loss of biodiversity and global warming.

-Environmental degradation process created as a result of the influence of excessive human activities that, owing to the emergence of desert-like landscapes, leads to the decline of productive land.

-Desert that is expanding, enlarging its perimeter to new areas.

Any of these work: limited crop rotation, overuse of land, removal of vegetation, bushfires, burning residue rather than allowing matter to decompose, lack of clay to retain moisture, soil not leached so salts remain, lacking knowledge, salinization due to evaporation, no capacity to bear risk and wait for future payoffs from investment (poverty).

(Because of these, sustainability is therefore threatened.)

-Loss of soil nutrients through erosion

-Changes in composition of vegetation and loss of biodiversity

-Increased sedimentation of streams because of soil erosion, sediment accumulation in reservoirs.

-Reduced income

-Decreased availability of fuelwood, necessitating purchase of oil/kerosene

-Increased dependance of food aid

-Increased rural poverty

-Loss of traditional knowledge and skill

-Forced migration due to scarcity

-Social tensions in reception areas for migrants

-Increased political tensions.

1. Carbon-free power sources (solar)

2. Some crops, such as nipa, a salt grass, thrive on seawater

3. Some desert aquaculture will relieve pressure on mangroves and sensitive coastlines.

Pros include: Gas prices will decrease, it provides employment opportunities, it's safe oil (unlike oil from Iraq).

Cons include: It will interrupt the migratory path of the caribou which the Inuit rely on, the permafrost could rupture the pipe, the jobs created require experience, will increase Canada's greenhouse emissions by 10% which is already 30% over the Kyoto target.

Arctic Circle - 66 degrees North

Yellowknife - 62 degrees North

Division between provinces and territories in Canada - 60 degrees north

Social + Economic = Equitable

Social + Environmental = Bearable

Economic + Environmental = Viable