which is transported by the blood?

I. Carbon Dioxide

II. Antibodies

III. Urea

• myogenic/ initated in heart muscle itself
• SA node/pasemaker sends waves of excitation/ impulses to atria
• stiumulus to the AV node
• conducting fibres/bundle of HIS/ perkinje fibers conduct impulses to the lower ventricles
• moderated by ANS/vagus nerve/parasympathetic 

• draws fresh air/oxygen into the lungs
• removal/excretion of CO2
• maintains the concentration gradient of O2 and CO2. respiratory gasses. 
• diaphragm contracts; (external) intercostal muscles contract; increased volume (of thorax/thoracic cavity)
• decreasing air pressure in the lungs; air rushes down in teh air pressure gradient; converse of the above causes of exhalation
• elastic recoil of lungs helps exhalation

CO2 comes in three forms:

• dissolved
• erythrocytes
• red blood cells and blood

Which is NOT true of active immunity?

A. It can be produced by exposure to a disease causing organism

B. It canbe produced artifically

C. It canbe produced by a virus

D. It can be transferred via the colostrums. 

The scientific names of two organisms are shown below....what is their relationship?

Lathyrus Palustris

Angelica Palustris

classification in biology involves putting organisms that share characteristics together in groups. in which type of group do the organisms share most characteristics?

A- Class

B- Family

C- Genus

D- Order

Which process decreases when the human body temperature decreases?

A- blood flow to internal organs

B- secretion of sweat

C- Secretion of insulin

D- Shivering

the movement of which ion initaties an action potential?

A- Calcium

B-Magnesium

C- Sodium

D- Potassium

which of the following is closely associated with lowering of high body temperature?

A- constriction of blood vessels in the skin

B- Vasodilation of blood vessels in the skin

C- Increased Shivering

D- Decreased sweat production

in a nerve impulse, what happens at the site following the highest point of action potential?

A- voltage-gated sodium ions open and NA+ is pumped in

B- Voltage-gated sodium ion channels open and NA+ diffuses out

C- Voltage-gated ion channels open and K+ is pumped out

D- Voltage- Gated Ion channels open and K+ diffuses out

vomiting

diarrhea

blood loss

increase in salt intake

drinking alcohol

coffee

drugs

morphine

nicotine

sweating

lack of water intake

• hollow, therefore ligher
• allows compression forces
• slight bending
• shaft of compact bone gives it strength
• spongy head allows for shock absorption
• smooth cartilage covers the end of the bone, which reduces friction

• insulin and glucagon
• homeostasis maintains the internal blood glucose levels between narrow limits ( 70-110mg glucose)
• blood glucose levels are maintained by negative feedback; islets in pancreas monitor blood glucose levels. 
• after meals, levels increase
• high blood glusose stimulates the release of insulin by the pancreatic islets. 
• causes muslces/adipose tissue and liver to store glucose
• the glucose is stored in the form of glycogen. 
• storage lowers blood glucose levels
• if blood glucose levels drop, glucagon is secreted by the islets in the pancreas
• glycogen breakdown causes blood glucose level to increase. 

what is the function of helicase?

A- It forms bonds between DNA and Nucleaotides

B- it adds new nucleotides to the DNA helix

C- it forms the DNA helix

D- It separates DNA strands

a certain gene code for a polypeptide that is 120 amino acids long. approx how many nucleotides long is the mRNA that codes for this polypeptide likely to be?

A- 30

B- 40

C- 360

D- 480

Which is NOT a part of the krebs cycle?

A- CO2

B- NADH+ H+

C- Pyruvate

D- ATP

what is the difference between autosomes and sex chromasomes?

A. Autosomes are not found in gametes, but sex chromasomes are. 

B. Sex Chromasomes are found in animal cells and autosomes are found in plant cells. 

C. Autosomes are diploid and sex chromasomes are haploid

D. sex chromasomes determine gender and autosomes dont

where is Human Chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) produced?

A- Ovary

B- Anterior pituitary

C- Embryo

D- Posterior Pituitary

how can testis tissue be different from ovary tissue, when seen using a light microscope?

A- testis tissue has a layer of muscle fibres and ovary tissues do not

B- Testis tissue is cooler than ovary tissue

C- Testis tissue contains tubules and ovary tissue does not

D- Testis tissue contains pain receptors and ovary tissue does not

which of the following are functions of the placenta? 

I. Gas exchange

II. Stimulation of uterine contractions

III. secretion of Progesterone

IV. secretion of estrogens

A. I only

B. III and IV only

C. I, III, and IV only

D. all 

What does oxytocin control?

A- Brain development

B- Onset of ovulation

C- stiumlation of uterine contractions

D- implantation of the blasotyte

Where does human fertilization more frequently occur?

A. Ovary

B. Oviduct

C. Uterus

D. Vagina

They both have:

• Meiosis
• Mitosis
• Cell growth
• LH/ LSH

FSH:

• Follicles
• Estrogen

For:

• Helps couples have kids
• genetic screening
• surrogate mother

Which type of cell is responsible for secondary immune response to a pathogen?

A- cytotoxic T cells

B- Phagocytes

C- macrophages

D- Memory cells

which process decreases when the human body temperature decreases?

A- Blood flow to internal organs

B- secretion of sweat

C- Secretion of insulin

D- Shivering

Which best describes the role of the kidneys in homestasis?

A- Storage of urine

B- Producing urine at a constant rate

C- removing Urea from the blood

D- Maintaining the water content of the blood between narrow limits. 

What are the TWO components of an ecosystem?

A. Community and Habitat

B. Species and Habitat

C. Habitat and Abiotic environment

D. Species and Community

Anti-diuretic hormone has its main effect on which part of the nephron?

A. Collecting Duct

B. Bowman's capsule

C. Loop of Henle

D. Proximal convoluted tubule

What can be changed in the kidney over a period of time in order to carry out the process of osmoregulation?

A- the amount of blood flowing to the kidney

B- The amount of fluid filtered form the blood in the glomerulus

C- the amount of water reabsorbed in the collecting ducts

D- the amount of solutes selectively reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule

• High pressure in afferent arterioles-- this leads to ultrafiltration in the glomerulus through fenestrated capillaries in teh glumerulos
• Drains through the bowman's capsule to the proximal convoluted tubule. 

Water: osmosis

Salt: active transport

Sources:  salivary glands and pancreas

Substrate: Starch/ glygocen

Product: maltose/ disaccharide

Optimum pH: 7-8 / neutral...slightly alkaline

• it is produced in the hypothalamus via the neurosecretory cells
• it is passed from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary glands
• it is attached to teh carrier proteins/ neurophysin
• it is realsed under stimulus by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
• osmosis is stimulated by high blood plasma concentration and reduced blood pressure
• increases water reabsorption in the kidneys. 

There is more oxygen in teh renal artery and less in the renal vein. 

Oxygenated vs. deoxygenated

less carbon dioxide in the renal artery and more in the renal vein

more urea in the renal artery and less in the renal vein

more ammonia, ethanol, toxins, hormones in the renal artery, and less in the renal vein. 

What term refers to a community and its abiotic environment?

A. Biosphere

B. Ecosystem

C. Habitat

D. Niche

which organisms externally digest dead organic matter and then absorb the nutrients?

A. Autotrophs

B. Detrivores

C. Heterotrophs

D. Saprotrophs

What are the two components of an ecosystem?

A. Community and abiotic environment

B. Species and habitat

C. Habitat and abiotic environment

D. Species and community. 

Which of the following statements correctly describes teh carrying capacity of an environment. 

A. the maximum rate of population growth for a species

B. The area of land tha tcan support a denned population of a species

C. The maximum population of a species that can be sustainably supported by a given environment. 

D. The minimum population of a species that can be sustainably supported by a given environment. 

The standard deviation is used to find out how spread out values are from the mean of a set of data. It is often used to determine if the difference between 2 means is going to be significant. A graph that is shaped like a bell curve is used to explain the standard deviation. The mean is in the middle of the curve, and the standard deviation values lie to the left and the right of the mean. If the curve of one of the samples is not as far from the mean than the data that was collected is closer to the value of the mean, then this means that there is a less deviation in the sample. If the curve is wider, and farther away from the mean, that means that the data collected was more spread out, and had a wider range, you can compare the two curves of the two sites, then from the curves, you can determine which one has a larger, or smaller standard deviation, and therefore this can tell you information about your ecological data. 

-          They plow to move the soil around, although this could have a negative effect because it can take a lot of the nutrients out of the soil.

-          They cannot overwater because the more water added, there is less air in the soil. Bacteria can then cause the oxygen to converts from nitrate to nitrate, but in the end, more nitrogen gets removed from the soil. Farmers could prevent this by creating good drainage systems.

-          Farmers use fertilizers that often include nitrogen, and if they don’t have nitrogen, then it produces other nutrients that allow the nitrogen cycle to take place.

-          Farmers use crop rotation. They move their crops to other soil for other nutrients, and then when they’re re-planted, manure is used, which places nitrogen back in the soil. 

It is used when trying to measure the diversity of an area. It looks at the number of species present in an area, and how many of each kind there are. Its split into three sections: the Simpson diversity, which measure the probability of two species randomly selected will the same species; the Simpson index of diversity, which measures the probability of 2 species being selected and belonging to different species, and the reciprocal index, which would represent a community with only one species. A low value of D could suggest pollution. Recent colonization. Agricultural management. Environmental stress. 

Shows how organisms are related/ to distinguish between organisms/ compare organisms; helps us to cope with the large number of different organisms. Easier to collect/store/find information about organisms. Easier to identify. Find scientific names. Identify homologous structures. 

a.       Rhizobium is a bacteria that induces the nitrogen-fixing in plant roots. It produces a lot of polysaccharide. Polysaccharide is a carbohydrate with chains and simple sugars. Pseudomonas dentificans accounts for the loss of a lot of the nitrogen, and this helps balance the nitrogen cycle. They compare because rhizobium and pseudomonas both help balance the nitrogen cycle.  Rhizobium adds nitrogen. Aerobic conditions. Pseudomonas denitrificans releases nitrogen and it converts nitrogen into nitrate. Anaerobic conditions. 

Which statement most accurately describes the plants Clarkia cylindrical, clarkia deflexa, and clarkia similis?

• same species?
• different group?
• Same family?
• different family?

which statement can be made about members of the same order?

A. they all belong to the same genus

B. They all belong to the same class

C. They all belong to the same family

D. they can all be interbred successfully. 

What factors promote evolution in a species?

I. Sexual reproduction

II. Environmental change

III. Overproduction of offspring, 

A. I and II only

B. II and III only

C. I and III only

D. I, II, and III

Genetic evolution is important in the evolution of humans because our genes change to adapt to our living conditions. Our genes are passed on and improved upon, which changes and alters them, which changes the species. Cultural evolution is important because it is the ability to fit in with your surroundings. If you are unable to fit in, then you will not be able to have offspring to take your genes to the next level.  Both of these factors are important to human evolution because they help biologists study humans more closely, and it helps them to trace human migration patterns, which can give insight to human change and evolution.  

Pre-biotic earth was when the earth was forming 5 million years ago. It was originally a cloud of dust particles that was surrounding the sun. as the mass of the dust cloud increased, heat was generated by the force of gravity that was being pushed upon it, and radioactive decay caused the interior to melt, which caused a dense metallic core which was composed of iron and nickel. This was then surrounded by a cooler mantel. On top of the mantel was a crust that formed the continents and the sea floor. The crust began to cool, and the gasses from the hot interior started to release through volcanoes. All of the volcanic eruptions caused the atmosphere to contain hydrogen, water vapor, ethane, ammonia, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide.  This created an atmospheric cloud, which reduced the amount of sun that was getting into the earth. This then was known as the reducing atmosphere. There is a difference between pre-biotic earth and the conditions we live in today because in pre-biotic earth, there was no molecular oxygen and only reducing agents were present. Today, there is oxygen in the earth, and that is how we survive. 

Two examples of evolution in response to environmental change are the moths, that through evolution, changed their color from white to darker colors like black and brown to blend in with the pollution they were surrounded by. They were easily visible among the pollution when they were white, so they were easy targets for their predators.  When they returned back into nature, the white moths were not suited well for the environment, and they stood out against the trees that were green in algae, so they were at an evolutionary disadvantage. Another example of evolution in response to environmental changes is that humans adapt to their environment. Humans in sunnier conditions usually have darker skin, and are more tolerant of the sun, while humans that are not exposed to the sun as much are paler, and their skin does not tolerate the sun very well. Because of separation, and genetic isolation, species often differ, although they are the same species. For example, the Galapagos Island Finches all have different beaks on different islands due to its different foods, but they are all the same species. 

Which is NOT true of active immunity?

A. it can be produced by exposure to a disease causing organism

B. It can be produced artifically

C. It can be produced by a virus. 

D. It can be transferred via the colostrums

Which of the following represents the correct sequence of events when the body is responding to a bacterial infection?

I. Antigen presentation by macrophages

II. Activation of B cells

III. Activation of helper T cells

A. I, II, III

B. I, III, II

C. III, II, I

D. II, III, I

. Why do antibiotics kill bacteria, but not viruses?

A.      Antibiotics stimulate the immune system against bacteria but not viruses

B.      Viruses have a way of blocking antibodies

C.      Viruses are too small to be affected by antibiotics

D.      Viruses do not have a metabolism  

Which type of immunity usually results from vaccination?

A.      Active, natural

B.      Active, artificial

C.      Passive, natural

D.      Passive, artificial 

An antigen is a foreign molecule in the body produced by a pathogen, and an antibody is a protein produced by the immune system to respond, and neutralizes an antigen. 

Antibodies are produced by many lymphocytes (immune system cells). Each lymphocyte will recognize a particular king of antigen and then it produces antibodies to work against the antigen. When the antigen enters the organism, the lymphocyte that produces the correct anybody will recognize it. The lymphocyte will divide and create clones. The clones will all produce the same kind of antibody, and attach themselves to the antigen to make it harmless.  B-cells can be found in the lymph nodes, and these b-cells will form clones and then they will turn into plasma and memory cells and together, produce one antibody. 

Two other substances, apart from antibodies, that are transported by the blood can be oxygen and carbon dioxide. 

Immunization is the process by which people get vaccines to prevent the spread of diseases. Immunization is when you inject pathogens deliberately into somebody so that the body can learn how to fight it off and create memory cells against it. If the pathogen is seen again by the body, it will be recognized and will be able to be fought off effectively and strongly the second time. The positive aspects of immunization is that it can cause the eradication of some diseases, it can lead to fewer people getting sick, and can protect those who have not been immunized because nobody around them will have the pathogen to spread to them. The negative aspects are that vaccines can overload the immune system, therefore making it weaker to other infections. Other pathogens may be growing with the vaccine as a form of contamination, which could be harmful. It could also be harmful to mix/take more than 2 vaccines at a time. Vaccines can also have side effects; such as the measles, mumps, and rubella virus may cause autism, and the whooping caught vaccine may increase chances of brain damage.   

Active immunity is when antibodies have been produced after you have gotten sick, and the body has been able to fight it off itself. Passive immunity is when antibodies have been given to the person by a vaccine, placenta, or breast milk, natural immunity is the immunity the body gets naturally from day to day contact with germs, bacteria, and pathogens. Artificial immunity is when the body is given a pathogen through a vaccine, or other way, and it builds up antibodies against it. They create memory cells. 

Antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not viruses because antibiotics disrupt the cell wall, and then the cell dies. Bacteria have cell walls, therefore they can be destroyed, but viruses don’t have a cell wall, so they’re not affected. Eukaryotic animal cells also don’t have a cell wall, so they’re not effected either. They block protein synthesis in bacteria, but not in eukaryotic cells.  Bacteria and animal cells synthesize proteins in a similar manner, although the proteins used are not the same, therefore the synthesis will have an effect on the proteins. 

Antibiotic resistance develops in bacteria when that bacteria has already been exposed to the antibiotic and it has built up memory cells against it. The bacteria can get worse as it becomes immune to other antibiotics. The older the bacteria, the stronger it will be because it has been more exposed to more antibiotics, therefore making it more immune to different types of antibiotics and it will know how to get around them. 

10. What statement can be made about members of the same order?

A.      They all belong to the same genus

B.      They all belong to the same class

C.      They all belong to the same family

D.      They can all interbreed successfully

11. The scientific names of two organisms: Lathyrus Palustris   Angelica Palustris. What is their relationship?

A.      They both belong to the same genus, but they are different species

B.      They both belong to the same species, but different genera

C.      They are both species and different genera

D.      They both belong to the same species and the same genus

12. Which factors promote evolution in a species?

                                I. Sexual reproduction

                                II. Environmental change

                                III. Overproduction of offspring

A.      I and II only

B.      II and III only

C.      I and III only

D.      I, II, and III

13. Classification in biology involves putting organisms that share characteristics together in groups. In which type of group do the organisms share most characteristics?

A.      Class

B.      Family

C.      Genus

D.      Order

14. Which statement most accurately describes the plants Clarkia cylindrical, clarkia deflexa, and clarkia similis?

A.      All three belong to the same species

B.      Each belongs to a different group

C.      All three belong to the same family

D.      Each belongs to a different family. 

Darwin’s theory of evolution states that the whole species is evolving.  The species evolves as a whole because all the individuals individually evolve, which contributes to the whole. Darwin’s theory includes natural selection. If a species is able to reproduce, and have offspring that is also able to reproduce, then it is a successful species. Evolution is the ability to change and adapt in order to survive, and to allow your genes to make it to the next generation.  Darwin’s theory of evolution can be proved by looking at the Galapagos Finches. They are all the same species of bird, but all of their beaks are slightly different, depending on the island which they live on. They have each adapted to their surroundings so that they can survive within their natural habitat. 

Two modern examples of where evolution can be observed are through humans today. Evolution can also be observed through plants and animals, such as the birds on the Galapagos Islands, and their different beaks.  Another example where evolution can be observed is through the neck on giraffes. They have evolved to have long necks so that they can eat the leaves from the top of the trees. They need to eat the leaves in order to survive. The giraffes without the long necks would not be able to eat from the taller trees, therefore they would be left without food, and they would die. 

• different resources
• mutations within the DNA
• depends on population size
• different climates
• availability of resources/food
• different passed down genetic traits