Term
| Levels of Biological Organization: |
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Definition
Biosphere→ecosystems→communities→populations→
organisms→Organ and organ systems→ tissue→ cell→organelles→molecules |
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Term
| Van der Waals Interactions |
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Definition
Weak and occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together.
Regions of positive and negative charges.
“hotspots” of +/- charge molecules are close together because of these charges |
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Term
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Definition
| Sphere of water molecule around each dissolved ion |
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Term
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Definition
Hydrophilic substances that do not separate in water.
Stable suspension of fine particles in liquid |
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Term
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Definition
Unicellular
DNA not sepaated from rest of cell
No cytoplasm |
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Term
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Definition
Multicellular
F(x) compartments
Membrane enclosed
DNA as chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Detect amount of substance in body |
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Term
| Emergent Properties of water |
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Definition
1. surface tension- hard or easy to break surface of liquid (cohesion/adhesion)
2. high specific heat: amt of heat absorbed or released for 1g substance by 1C
3. Density: H bonds separate in ice because they move less
4. Solvent of life: H attracts and breaks apart solute |
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Term
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Definition
| Absorption of heat by breaking of H bonds |
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Term
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Definition
| H bonds between water molecules breaking |
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Term
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Definition
| Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids |
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Term
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Definition
| repeating units of building blocks that make up polymer |
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Term
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Definition
| Made up by monomers- long molecules consisting of many similar identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds |
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Term
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Definition
Simple sugars
Are used for energy in cell and are used to make other types of organic molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| Double sugars- 2 mono. Joined by condensation |
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Term
| Glycosidic linkage In sugar…… In starch…… |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Fats, phospholipids, steroids |
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Term
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Definition
| Large molecules assembled from smaller molecules by dehydration reaction (glycerol +fatty acids) Ester linkage- 3 fatty acids to glycerol Glycerol: alcohol with 3C- each with carboxyl group Fatty acids: long C chain with 16-18C long attached to Carboxyl group |
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Term
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Definition
| Lipids with C skeleton Different f(x) attached to the rings |
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Term
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Definition
| 3 fatty acids to glycerol Glycerol: alcohol with 3C- each with carboxyl group Fatty acids: long C chain with 16-18C long attached to Carboxyl group *bonding a hydroxyl and carboxyl group together= triacetylglycerol and triglceride |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| One or more double bonds present in chain- due to removing H atoms from the C skeleton- form a kink in its tail where the double bond exists |
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Term
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Definition
| Storage of polysaccharides of plants |
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Term
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Definition
| Animals storage of polysaccharides |
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Term
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Definition
Amino group
Carboxyl group
Hydrogen atom
R- side chain
(ARCH) |
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Term
| Secondary protein structure |
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Definition
1. Beta pleated sheet- 2 or more polypeptides lie parallel to each other; held together by H bonds
2. alpha helix- coil together by H bonding on every fourth amino acid |
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Term
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Definition
Disulfide bridges-form when 2 cysteine monomers are brought close together while folding
Van der Waal interactions hold them together in clusters of the core of the protein- bc of their hydrophobic side chain |
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Term
| 4 conditions leading to protein denaturement |
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Definition
1. ph
2. salt content
2. temperature
4. environment |
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Term
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Definition
Linked by phosphodiester linkages to form polynucleotides
Sequence of the bases specifies the protein structure
Nitrogenous base, phosphate group, 5C
Nitrogenous based: pyrimidines and purines |
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Term
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Definition
6 member rings of C and N
C, T, U |
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Term
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Definition
6 member ring fused to 5 member ring
A, G |
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Term
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Definition
| Any of various compounds consisting of a sugar, usually ribose or deoxyribose, and a purine or pyrimidine base, especially a compound obtained by hydrolysis of a nucleic acid, such as adenosine or guanine. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
produce proteins
1. bound: rough ER
2. free: found in cytosol of cytoplasm |
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Term
| 5 end v 3 end of nucleotide |
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Definition
| Phosphodiasteral linkages between OH group in a 3’ carbon of 1 nucleotide and the phosphate on the 5’ C of the next. |
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Term
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Definition
| Monosaccharide, disaccharides, polysaccharides, starch |
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Term
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Definition
| The surface to volume ratio is an important parameter affecting cell size. Volume grows proportionately more to the surface area |
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Term
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Definition
separates nucleus from cytoplasm.
Double membrane with phospholipids bilayer
Contains pores lined by a nuclear lamina, regulates entry and exit of macromolecules.
Double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores; continuous with ER |
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Term
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Definition
| synthesizes RNA in the cytoplasm |
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Term
| Eukaryotic Ribosome f(x): |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| in cytosol of the cytoplasm whose proteins will f(x) in the cytosol |
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Term
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Definition
| attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope whose proteins will insert into membranes for certain organelles or export from the cell. |
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Term
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Definition
Consist of membrane sacs, cisternae, stacked on one another
“post office”
Transport vesicles leave the ER they go to golgi app where they are modified and shipped to their location
Cis- receiving end; located near ER
trans- shipping end; makes vesicles to transport to other side |
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Term
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Definition
Membrane bound sac of hydrolyic enzymes that the cell uses to digest all types of macromoclecules
Keeps low pH in lumen by pumping H+ from cytosol
Used in programming cell death
Recycle cells organic material |
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Term
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Definition
Membrane bound sacks
Stores organic compounds
Food vacuoles formed by phagocytosis |
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Term
| Cisternal maturation model |
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Definition
| the cisternae of the Golgi apparatus move by being built at the cis face and destroyed at the trans face |
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Term
| 3 examples of intracellular digestion by lysosomes |
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Definition
1. phagocytosis
2.autophagy- hydrolytic enzyme
3. |
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Term
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Definition
1. food vacuoles: formed by phagocytosis
2. central vacuoles: by plants to transport solutes
3. contractile vacuole |
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Term
| Organelles not Part of ER |
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Definition
| - mitochondria, ribosomes, peroxisomes, chloroplast |
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Term
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Definition
Where the energy comes from. It converts energy from surroundings to a form cell can use…. Makes ATP
Has mDNA- synthesizes protein to use as energy
Outside is smooth; inside has mitochondrial matrix/cristae: important because they increase the surface area of the inner membrane increasing metabolism |
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Term
| 3 functional components of chloroplast |
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Definition
-Mitochondrial matrix- cellular respiration
Outer membrane:
Thylakoid: where light dependent reactions of photosynthesis take place |
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Term
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Definition
Convert sunlight to energy
Sites of photosynthesis
Made up of thylakoids- dividing chloroplast into 2 compartments. |
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Term
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Definition
| Non pigmented organelles found in some plants responsible for the storage/synthesis of starch granules. And convert it back to sugar |
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Term
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Definition
| Plastids responsible for pigment synthesis and storage |
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Term
mDNA and
choloroplast DNA |
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Definition
| They are autonomous because they each have their own DNA and ribosomes |
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Term
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Definition
Transfer H+ to oxygen to make hydrogen peroxide → broken down to water by enzymes
Detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds by transferring H+ from these to oxygen
Ex. Glyoxysomes- specialized peroxisomes found in fat storing tissue to convert fatty acides to sugar |
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Term
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Definition
Gives up mechanical support to a cell and maintains its shape,
Anchors organelles and some enzymes
Involved in cell mobility with cilia and flagella |
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Term
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Definition
Hollow rod- walls made of tubulin; thickest
Helps particles move throughout cell
Used in cell division |
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Term
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Definition
Solid rods made of Actin filaments- thinnest
Bears tension for support of the cell’s shape
Involved in cell mobility |
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Term
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Definition
Intermediate length
Bears tension
Important in reinforcing shape of cell and fixing position of certain organelle |
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Term
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Definition
Locomotor appendages, move water over their surface
Common ultrastructure with a core of microtubules in their plasma membrane
Need a basal body for anchoring |
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Term
| Supportive mechanisms in Cell membrane |
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Definition
| Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments |
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Term
| Mechanisms that help cell move around |
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Definition
| cilia, flagella, microtubules |
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Term
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Definition
Microfibrils are made of cellulose, a polysaccharide are embedded with a matrix of polysaccharides and proteins→ strong fibers
Primary cell wall- thin and flexible
Middle lamella- rich in pectins- glues cells together
Secondary cell wall- a layer of cell wall between plasma membrane and primary wall |
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Term
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Definition
Made up of glycoproteins secreted by cells- collagen, forming strong fibers outside of the cell
Plays a role in the communication of cells: fibronectins- bind to receptor proteins, integrins in the plasma membrane |
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Term
| $ functions of Extra Cellular Matrix |
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Definition
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Term
| Intracellular Matrix in Plants |
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Definition
Plasmodesmata- cell walls perforated with these channels connecting the living contents of adjacent cells
Unifies most of the living plant into one living continuum |
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Term
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Definition
cell walls perforated with these channels connecting the living contents of adjacent cells
Unifies most of the living plant into one living continuum |
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Term
| Intracellular j(x) in animals |
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Definition
Tight j(x)- membrane of adjacent cells are fused
Desmosomes- anchoring j(x)- fasten cells
Gap j(x)- communication j(x) provide cyoplasmic channels with adjacent cells |
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Term
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Definition
| Synthesize membrane proteins and secretory proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| Nuclear envelope, Golgi apparatus, plasma membrane, ER |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Production of ribosomal subunit |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| sugar glucose and other organic fuels are broken down in the presence of O to CO2 and water |
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Term
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Definition
| synthesis of protein to amino acids |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| energy used relative to associated objects |
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Term
| Organism as an open system |
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Definition
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Term
| First law of thermodynamics |
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Definition
| Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transferred and transformed |
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Term
| Second law of thermodynamics |
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Definition
| Energy transfer increases randomness of the universe. |
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Term
| Equation for free energy change |
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Definition
| Free Energy= Total Energy – (temperature x Change in Entropy) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Three types of cellular work |
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Definition
Chemical work: pushing endergonic reactions
Transport work: pumping of substances across membranes
Mechanical work: beating of cilia, mitosis, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| Nitrogenous Base + Phosphate Group+ Adenine+ ribose |
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Term
| Induced Fit Model of enzyme function |
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Definition
| Chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical reaction |
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Term
| Mechanisms with which enzymes lower activation energy |
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Definition
-acting as a template for substrate orientation
-stressing the substrates and stabilizing the transition state
-providing a favorable microenvironment
-participating directly in the catalytic reactions |
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Term
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Definition
| protein function of one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site. |
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Term
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Definition
| metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway |
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Term
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Definition
| Genetic information in DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| All body cells except sex |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
A complex of DNA and associated protein molecules
The unit that specify an organisms inherited traits |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Cell grows; organelles duplicate |
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Term
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Definition
| Chrom duplicate "synthesis" |
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Term
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Definition
Cell grows more; organelles duplicate
Nuclear envelope bounds the nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
Mitotic spindle form
nucleoli disappears
mitotic spindle form |
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Term
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Definition
Nuclear envelope fragments
Chrom become more condensed |
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Term
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Definition
Longest stage of mitosis
Centrosomes are now at opposite poles of the cell
Chrom at middle |
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Term
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Definition
Shortest stage of mitosis
Cohesion of proteins are claved- chromatids part separately
Moving towards opposite ends of pole |
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Term
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Definition
Two daughter nuclei form in the cell
Nuclear envelopes arise from the fragments of the parent’s cell nuclear envelope |
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Term
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Definition
| Radical array of short microtubules from extend from centrosome |
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Term
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Definition
| Structure of protein associated with specific sections of chrom DNA at centromere |
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Term
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Definition
| Cleavage furrow during anaphase or telophase |
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Term
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Definition
| Contractile ring of actin microfilaments associated with molecules of the protein myosin |
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Term
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Definition
| Asexual reproduction fo single celled eukaryotes |
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Term
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Definition
| Cell cycle is a control where stop and go ahead signals can regulate the cycle |
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Term
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Definition
| If the cell does not receive a go ahed signal at G1 checkpoint it switches to a non-dividing state called… |
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Term
| Protein kinases and cyclins |
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Definition
| Regulatory proteins that give the go ahead in the G1 and G2 checkpoints |
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Term
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Definition
| To be active Kinase much be attached to this protein to promote phosphorylation |
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Term
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Definition
| Protein released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide |
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Term
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Definition
| Spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site |
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Term
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Definition
| Stops actively dividing cells from proceeding past metaphase |
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Term
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Definition
| Other chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes |
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Term
| Alteration of Generations |
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Definition
| Second type of life cycle in plants and some species of algae- this type includes both diploid and haploid stages that are multicellular |
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Term
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Definition
| Multicellular diploid stage |
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Term
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Definition
| A haploid spore doesn’t fuse with another cell but divides mitotically generating a multicellular haploid stage called…. |
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Term
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Definition
Chrom begin to condense and homolgs loosely pair along their lengths
-crossing over
-synapsis
-centrosome movement, spindle formation, and nuclear envelop breakdown
-microtubules from one pole or another attach to the two kinetochores |
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Term
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Definition
Homologous chrom are arranged on metaphase plate
Both chromatids are attached to microtubules from opposite pole |
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Term
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Definition
Breakdown of proteins are responsible for sister chromatid cohesion
-homologs move towards opposite poles guided by the spindle apparatus |
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Term
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Definition
At beginning of telophase each ½ of cells has a complete haploid set of replicated chrom.
-cytokinesis happens with telophase |
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Term
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Definition
| Replicated homologs pair up and become physically connected along their length by a zipper like protein |
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Term
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Definition
| Genetic rearrangement between nonsister chromatids |
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Term
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Definition
1. synapsis and crossing over
2. metaphase I- chrom are positioned on the metaphase plate as pairs of homolgs, rather than ind chromosomes
3. anaphase I-rep chrom of hom pairs move towards opposite poles- but sister chromatids of rep chrom remain attached. In Anaphase of mitosis sister chrom separate |
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Term
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Definition
| Each hom pair of chrom is positioned independently of the other pairs at metaphase I |
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Term
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Definition
1.alternative versions of genes account for variationsin inherited characters
2. for each character, an organism inherits two alleles, from from each parents
3.Two alleles from a locus differ. Dominant allele determines the organims appearance
4. law of segregation |
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Term
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Definition
| Two alleles for a heritable character segregate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes |
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Term
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Definition
| Handy diagram device for predicting he allele composition of offspring from a cross between individual of known genetic makeup |
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Term
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Definition
| Organism that has a pair of identical alleles for a character is said to be homozygous for the gene |
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Term
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Definition
| Allele that is said to have two different alleles for a gene |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 alleles both affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways |
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Term
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Definition
| Genes with mltiple phenotype effects |
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Term
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Definition
| Gene at one locus alters the phenotype expression of a gene at a second locus |
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Term
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Definition
| Can determine whether the developing fetus has disease |
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Term
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Definition
| Inactive X in each cell of the female condenses into a compact object called the Barr body, which lies along the inside of the nuclear envelope. |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 nonparental phenotypes are also found among the offspring. They have new combinations of seed shape and color |
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Term
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Definition
Accounts for the recombination of linked genes.
The farther apart two genes are, the higher the probability that a crossover will occur between them and therefore the higher the recombination frequency |
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Term
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Definition
| Pair of homologous chromosomes do not move apart properly during meiosis I or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis II |
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Term
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Definition
| Either of the aberrant gametes unites with a normal one at fertizilation, the zygote will also have an abnormal number of chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
Results in the silencing of one allele of certain gametes
Methyl groups that are added to cytosine nucleotides of one of the alleles. Methylation may directly silence the allele, an affect consisten with evidence that heavily methylated genes are usually inactive |
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Term
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Definition
| Change in genotype and phenotype dure ot the assimilation of external DNA by a cell |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Unwinds parental double helix at replication forks |
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Term
| Single stranded binding protein |
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Definition
| Binds to and stabilizes single stranded DNA until it can be used as a template |
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Term
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Definition
| Relieves “overwinding” strain ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strand |
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Term
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Definition
| synthesizes an RNA primer at 5’ end of leading strand and of each Okazaki fragment of lagging strand |
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Term
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Definition
| Removes RNA nucleotides of primer from 5’ end an replaces them with DNA nucleotides |
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Term
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Definition
| Using parental DNA as template , synthesize new DNA strand by covalently adding nucleotides to the 3’ end of pre-existing DNA strand or RNA primer |
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Term
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Definition
| The DNA strand elongating in this direction 5'-3' is synthesized discontinuously |
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Term
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Definition
| the DNA strand elongating away from the replication fork |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Joins 3’ end of DNA that replaces primer to rest of leading strand and joins Okazaki fragments of lagging strand |
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Term
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Definition
Eukaryotic chrom DNA molecules have special nucleotide sequence
-Do not contain genes, instead the DNA consists of multiple repetitions of one short nucleotide sequence |
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Term
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Definition
| Catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells thus restoring their oriinal length and compensating for the shortening that occurs during DNA replication |
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Term
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Definition
| Complex of DNA and protein- that fits into the nucleus through an elaborate multilevel system of DNA packing |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA composition varies from one species to the next. Found that in any species there is an equal number of A and T bases and G and C bases |
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Term
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Definition
| They designed an experiment showing that only one of the two components of T2 (DNA or protein) enters an E coli cell during infection |
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Term
| Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty, and Colin MacLeod |
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Definition
| concluded that the transforming substance was DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| worked with 2 strains of bacterium. 1 harmless and one pathogenic. When he mixed heat- killed remains of the pathogenic strain with living cells of the harmless pathogenic strain with living cells of the harmless strain, some living cells became pathogenic. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| When each daughter molecule replicates- each dauhter molecule will have one strand conserved from the parent and one newly made strand |
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Term
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Definition
Catalyze the elongation of new DNA at replication fork
Only adds nucleotides from the free 3’ end of the growing strand; therefore a new DNA strand can elongate only in the 5’ to the 3’ direction. |
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Term
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Definition
| A segment of the strand containing the damage is cut out- by the cutting out enzyme and the resulting gap is filled with nucleotides |
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Term
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Definition
Chrom of germ cells bcome shorter in every cell cycle, essential genes would eventually be missing from the gametes they produce.
This enxyme catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells |
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Term
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Definition
| phenotype is a mix of both alleles |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which DNA directs protein synthesis, includes two stages: transcription and translation |
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Term
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Definition
is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA
produces messenger RNA (mRNA)
a DNA strand called the template strand provides a template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript
Is the DNA directed synthesis of RNA |
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Term
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Definition
is the synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs under the direction of mRNA
Ribosomes are the site of translation
the mRNA base triplets, called codons, are read in the 5 to 3 direction |
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Term
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Definition
Flow of information from gene to protein
a series of nonoverlapping, three-nucleotide words |
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Term
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Definition
| In Transcription: the sequence signaling the end of transcription |
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Term
| 3 stages of transcription |
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Definition
Initiation
Elongation
Termination |
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Term
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Definition
| Promoter crucial in forming the initiation complex in eukaryotes |
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Term
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Definition
| long noncoding stretches of nucleotides that lie between coding regions |
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Term
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Definition
| are eventually expressed, usually translated into amino acid sequences |
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Term
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Definition
| RNA splicing is carried out by spliceosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| catalytic RNA molecules that function as enzymes and can splice RNA |
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Term
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Definition
A cell translates an mRNA message into protein
Each carries a specific amino acid on one end
Each has an anticodon on the other end; the anticodon base-pairs with a complementary codon on mRNA |
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Term
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Definition
| facilitate specific coupling of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons in protein synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
The P site holds the tRNA that carries the growing polypeptide chain
The A site holds the tRNA that carries the next amino acid to be added to the chain
The E site is the exit site, where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome |
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Term
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Definition
A number of ribosomes can translate a single mRNA simultaneously, forming a polyribosome
Allows one to make many copies of a polypeptide quickly |
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Term
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Definition
| Carries information specifying amino acid sequences of proteins from DNA to ribosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| Serves as adapter molecule in protein synthesis; translates mRNA codons into amino acids |
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Term
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Definition
| Plays catalytic (ribozyme) roles and structural roles in ribosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| Serves as a precursor to mRNA, rRNA, or tRNA, before being processed by splicing or cleavage |
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Term
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Definition
| is the protein shell that encloses the viral genome |
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Term
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Definition
| which are derived from the host cell’s membrane, contain a combination of viral and host cell molecules |
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Term
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Definition
phage reproductive cycle that culminates in the death of the host cell
Bacteria have defenses against phages, including restriction enzymes that recognize and cut up certain phage DNA |
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Term
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Definition
replicates the phage genome without destroying the host
The viral DNA molecule is incorporated by genetic recombination into the host cell’s chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| use reverse transcriptase to copy their RNA genome into DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| The viral DNA that is integrated into the host genome is called a |
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Term
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Definition
| are slow-acting, virtually indestructible infectious proteins that cause brain diseases in mammals |
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Term
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Definition
| can be switched off by a protein called a repressor |
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Term
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Definition
| small molecule that cooperates with a repressor to switch an operon off |
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Term
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Definition
is a repressible operon
one that is usually on; binding of a repressor to the operator shuts off transcription |
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Term
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Definition
is one that is usually off; a molecule called an inducer inactivates the repressor and turns on transcription
ex. lac operon |
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Term
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Definition
| the addition of methyl groups to certain bases in DNA, is associated with reduced transcription in some species |
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Term
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Definition
| The inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence is called |
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| The other important source of developmental information is the environment around the cell, especially signals from nearby embryonic cells |
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| signal molecules from embryonic cells cause transcriptional changes in nearby target cells |
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1. It identified a specific protein required for some early steps in pattern formation
2. It increased understanding of the mother’s role in embryo development
3. It demonstrated a key developmental principle that a gradient of molecules can determine polarity and position in the embryo |
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| normal cellular genes that code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth and division |
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| is an enzyme that seals the bonds between restriction fragments |
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| library is made by cloning DNA made in vitro by reverse transcription of all the mRNA produced by a particular cell |
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| bacterial artificial chromosome |
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| ) is a large plasmid that has been trimmed down and can carry a large DNA insert |
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| Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) |
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| Reverse transcriptase is added to mRNA to make cDNA, which serves as a template for PCR amplification of the gene of interest |
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| combines gel electrophoresis of mRNA followed by hybridization with a probe on a membrane |
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| compare patterns of gene expression in different tissues, at different times, or under different conditions |
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| restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) |
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| When a restriction enzyme is added, SNPs result in DNA fragments with different lengths, |
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| Single Nucleotide Polymorphism |
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are useful genetic markers
These are single base-pair sites that vary in a population |
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| the alteration of an afflicted individual’s genes |
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| animals are made by introducing genes from one species into the genome of another animal |
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