Term
| The Premiership of Robert Walpole (1676-1745) |
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Definition
o George I (r. 1714-1727)
• Not that influential because by this time the king didn’t really have that much power. Most power was in the Parliament.
o The Jacobite Threat
• All the descendents of James II
• Threat of Staurt pretender coming back; becoming king of England |
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Term
| o Robert Walpole (1722-1742) |
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Definition
• Whig
• First Prime Minister (they didn’t really use this name yet)
• Key Policies
• Moderate religious policy
o Opposed test acts
• Non-involvement in European wars
o Except the need to protect Hannover
o Choose peace→keep taxes low
• Development of trade and the colonies
• Fairly rapid economic growth (but uneven)
• Cut debt significantly
• Most $ goes to large traders in London
o George II (r. 1727-1760) and the Civil List
• Civil List=annual stipend that the monarchy receives straight from the Parliament
• Walpole supports this so George II is supportive of him
o Manipulating Elections
• Rigs the elections
o Walpole’s Fall (1742)
• The Whigs cross the line and align with the Tories in order to get Walpole out of power because he has become too corrupt
o The Jacobite Rebellion (1745-1746)
o The Battle of Culloden (April 16, 1746)
• Bonny Prince Charley and troops are slaughtered
• Aftermath=irradiate the culture of the Highlanders→Scotland treated as an occupied territory
• Attempts to anglicize Scotland |
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Term
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Definition
o (1745-1746)
o Charles Edward Stuart, Bonny Prince Charley, invades Scotland; tries to rally supporters
o Doesn’t really get that much support
o MORE? |
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Term
| Seven Years War (“World War Zero”) |
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Definition
o The Opening moves (1756-7)
o Frederick knocks Saxony out of the war (1756)
• He strikes first b/c he sees what is coming
• Saxony is a minor ally of Austria
• Single battle invasion/conquering
o The Invasion of Bohemia (1757)
• Frederick discovers Austrians better prepared than before
o Sweden attacks Pomerania (March 1757)
o Russia enters East Prussia (July-August 1757)
• Now Prussia has enemies from 3 sides
o The French Army defeats Hannoverians (Sept 1757)
o The Battle of Rossbach (Nov. 5, 1757)
o The Battle of Leuthen (Dec. 5, 1757)
o Frederick has now defeated the two biggest threats to him even though he was outnumbered in both cases
o Prussia on the Defensive (1758-1761)
o Frederick is losing troops f
o William Pitt the Elder and British Subsidies
o The Toll of War
o The Battle of Kunersdorf (Aug. 12, 1759)
o →Taxes and Resistance
• Has to raise taxes to train troops
o Berlin Occupied (1760)
• Frederick as to flee
• Capital is occupied by their enemy
o Elizabeth of Russia dies→Peter III succeeds
• Peter is a HUGE supporter of Prussia
• Russia switches side and now they are fighting with Prussia
• This saves Prussia
o Britannia rules the Waves
o French Plans to Invade British Isles
• Two French navies have to unite
o The Battle of Lagos (Aug. 19, 1759)
o The Battle of Quiberon Baby (Nov. 20, 1759)
o Aftermath
o Endgame (1762-1763)
o The Death of Empress Elizabeth (Jan. 5, 1762)→ Accession of Peter III→ Russia withdraws from the war
o The Treaty of Paris (Feb. 10, 1763) between Britain and France
o The Legacy
• Complete disaster for France
• Lost all colonies in North America
• Racked up TONS of debt
• French people very upset |
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Term
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Definition
o Feb. 10, 1763 ends fighting between Britain and France
o 1763-Brings 7 years war to an end
o 1783-Officially ends the French and Indian War
o Also serves as a formal ending to the American Revolution
o Prussian control of Silesia is confirmed
o Not much else is changed in Europe
o France loses all of its control in North America
o France cedes all territory east of the Mississippi, except New Orleans, to Britain
o Spain cedes Florida to Britain, but receives Louisiana Territory and New Orleans
o Havana and Manila returned to Spain
o France cedes many Caribbean islands & Senegal in West Africa to Britain
o France loses most territory in India, except Pondicherry |
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Term
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Definition
o Russian ruler (1762-1796)
o Marriage to Peter III
o Conspiracy with Grigory Orlov and the Coup of July 9, 1762
o Kills her husband
o She becomes Empress
o Secularizing Clerical Land (1762)
o Nationalizes the land
o Economically very helpful for the government
o Foreign Policy
o Friendship with philosophers
o Catherine’s Letter of Instruction (1767)
o Directive to free up serfdom and implement reforms
o Doesn’t work the way she planned
o The Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774
o Pugachev’s Rebellion (1773-1775)
o →Serfdom strengthened
o The Partitions of Poland
o The Growth of Russia |
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Term
| Pugachev’s Rebellion (1773-1775) |
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Definition
o Led by Emelyan Pugachev
o Changed Catherine’s outlook
o She discovered that Russia was dependent upon serfdom
o Catherine responded by further centralizing her government and by tightening aristocratic control over the peasantry |
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Term
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Definition
o System of integrated trading—economically tied 3 areas together
o Beginning of the Atlantic world. What occurs on one side of the Atlantic will effect what happens on the other
o Growing Demand in Europe for materials from the colonies
o The Triangle Trade
o The European Leg
• Manufactured goods (cloth, liquor, firearms, tools, jewelry)
o The African Leg
• Slaves (Give the goods to the coastal tribes whom had captured slaves from the inland tribes)
• Didn’t create slavery but intensified the demand for it!
• Middle passage-slaved packed into ships (inhumane conditions) and shifted off to America. Minimal arrangements to insure that slaves survived (profit incentives) but no guarantee that they will be healthy
• Didn’t start as a racial justification; this comes later
o The American Leg
• Traded slaves for raw materials
• Raw materials shipped back to Europe to be used to create manufactured goods
o →Emergence of merchant class in colonies
o →Early accumulation of capital
o Emergence of Integrated Economy in the Atlantic |
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Term
| The French and Indian War |
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Definition
o 1754-1763
o Skirmishes from 1754—George Washington and Fort Necessity
o Small border skirmishes in the Ohio River Valley
o GW surrendered when Fort Necessity was surrounded
o The British struggling (1754-1758)
o Struggle early but later gain momentum
o The Role of the Indians
o Most natives support the French
o The Global Strategy of William Pitt the Elder (PM 1756-1761, 1766-8)
o Initiated a naval blockade of the French from the Americas
o The British Naval Blockade (1758-9)
o The Battle of the Plains of Abraham (Sept 13, 1759)-Wolfe vs Montclam → Fall of Quebec
o British victory
o Montreal Falls (1760)
o British victory→now no real French cities left |
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Term
| The American Revolution (1775-1783) |
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Definition
o The Road to Rebellion
o Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763)
• Had to send troops in order to keep colonies in line
o The Goal of the British
• Pay off debt from French and Indian War
• British want the colonies to pay for the protection they were receiving
o The Stamp Act (1765)
• Colonists feel this was being imposed on them
• Never really enforced. Eventually revoked
o The Townshend Act (1767)
• More direct taxes
• Taxation without representation
• Tea Act—impossible to trade tea outside a certain companiy→
o The Boston Tea Party (Dec 16, 1773)→
o The Intolerable Acts (1774)
o The First Continental Congress (Sept 5-Oct 26, 1774)
o The fighting begins
o Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775)
• Fighting starts before the revolution is declared
• 1st battle (relatively small)
• Local militia vs British army
o Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775)
• British victory but it became a rallying cry for the colonies
o The Declaration of Independence
o The struggle for independence
o George Washington appointed Commander of Continental Army (Feb 1775)
o A war of skirmishees
o The Battle of Saratoga (Oct 7, 1777) →Burgoyne surrenders →France enters the war
o Winter in Valley Forge
o Yorktown→Cornwallis surrenders (Oct 18, 1781)
o The birth of a new nations
o The Road to Peace
o The Treaty of Paris (1783)
o The Example of the American Revolution
• Left an example that maybe the people can stand up to their rulers and win
• Sparked the idea that a change of government can be accomplished |
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Term
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Definition
o (Dec 16, 1773)→
o Colonists dressed up as Indians
o Now Parliament wants to teach the colonists a lesson→
o The Intolerable Acts (1774)
• Close the Port of Boston completely (no trade in or out)
• Big trade center
• Reorganized the colony of Massachusetts
• Protect royal officials from Britain. Gave officials a freer hand
• Broaden the authority of Parliament to quarter troops in the homes of the colonists |
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Term
| The Declaration of Independence |
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Definition
o July 4, 1776
o Formal break from Britain
o Lay out reasons: formal justification of why they are claiming independence
o List the offenses that King George has imposed on the colonists
o Very Lockean (life, liberty and property→life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness) |
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Term
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Definition
o →Cornwallis surrenders (Oct 18, 1781)
o Colonists and French trap British troops
o Supplies get cut off by French fleet |
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Term
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Definition
o (1774-1792)
o Maupeou’s Fall→reform blocked
o Dismissed Maupeou and reinstated the Parliament
o French Support for the American Revolution (1778-1783)
o Military, naval and monetary support
o Jacques Necker-war and debt
o Swiss financer
o Debt financing—we will borrow the money to pay off the debt and finance the war
o This exacerbates the debt
o At end of American Rev France owes about 3 mill levre
o Paying off debt is about 50% of the budget
o Crop Failures, 1787-1788
o France is wealthiest and most populous country in Europe
o BUT it is still overwhelmingly agricultural
o Extensive crop failures had a HUGE effect!
o Royal income plummets
o Calonne’s Plan (1787)
o We need a convincing plan to institute long term reforms
o Assembly of notables (300)→they don’t support his plan
o Thus, more shortcuts are sought in order to avoid bankruptcy
o No politically acceptable solution is found
o State Bankruptcy Declared (Aug. 16, 1788) →Estates-General Promised
o Another series of crop failures→forced to declare bankruptcy
o Can’t pay interest on debt→ruins credit
o They were forced to call the Estates-General
• First time since 1614
• Had to have representatives from the 3 different estates
• How are these representatives going to be chosen?
o Monarchy abolished (Aug. 10, 1792)
o France will be a republic
o The Trail and Execution of Louis Capet
o The French Victorious—offer to help “all peoples seeking to recover their liberties” (Nov. 19, 1792)
• Aristocratic fear throughout Europe
• Ideological crusade
• No nobleman would be safe
o The Trial (Dec. 3, Dec. 26, 1792)
• Found guilty
o The Execution of Louis Capet (Jan. 21, 1793) by guillotine |
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Term
| The Tennis Court Oath (June 20) → |
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Definition
o Assembly area had been closed (Aristocratic plot?)
o Oath to not disband until a French Constitution had been written
o At this time, people probably wanted a Constitutional Monarchy
o King has a role but not an absolute role
o Along the lines of England’s set up |
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Term
| The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (Aug. 26, 1789) |
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Definition
o Similar to the US Declaration of Independence
o Natural rights-things a king can’t even abridge
o Property
o Speech
o Religious toleration
o Becomes foundation for the revolution |
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Term
| Civil Constitution of the Clergy |
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Definition
o Decreed on July 12, 1790
o Reorganized the bishoprics and parishes→each bishopric now corresponds with new districts
o Bishops no longer appointed by the pope
o Clergy paid by the state because no more tithe
o Require the clergy to swear an oath of loyalty to the French state rather than the pope
o This was a HUGE dividing point
o France was divided—some areas lots of clergy swore oath (around Paris) but others felt that this was against the church (west/countryside) |
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Term
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Definition
o Lower class citizens—‘without breeches”
o Anti-aristoctratic badge of pride: a man of the people
o Wore full length trousers
o Led by the electors, the people formed a provisional municipal government and organized a militia of volunteers
o Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)
o Storm the Tuileries Palace (Jun 20, 1792)→
o Lead by Danton
o Take royal family prisoner |
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Term
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Definition
o A prominent leader of the radical revolution
o Victim of persecution→refuge in unsanitary places→skin disease
o Editor of popular new sheet The Friend of the People
o Encouraged violence against enemies of the new regime
o The September Massacres (Sept. 2-6, 1792)
• Numerous people killed
• Prisons were opened and many clergyman that hadn’t sworn oath were slaughtered. Any nobles hanging around were killed
• Over 1,100 people were lynched
• Power of popular mob violence
• Constituted authorities had to respond to the people
o Assassination (July 13, 1793)
o He had a debilitating skin disease→only relief was the bath
o Charolette Corday killed him
o Showed that their were conspirators everywhere |
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Term
| The Battle of Valmy (Sept. 20, 1792) |
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Definition
o Prussian army was marching towards France→immense fear
o Who is going to stop the Prussians?
o The National Guard stopped the Prussians! (unlikely)
o Prussian commander decided to retreat→French go on attack
o This battle saves the revolution, unexpectedly |
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Term
| The Committee of Public Safety |
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Definition
o Set up (April 6, 1792)
o Two purposes:
o Seize control of the revolution
o Prosecute all the revolution’s enemies
o Danton and Robespierre both served on the CPS
o Distinct factions had emerged
o Mountain men=Montagars/Jacobins..the radicals; want to push the revolution further and further to the LEFT
o Girondins=more moderate. Seen as too compromising; RIGHT
o Not necessarily anti-revolutionary but anti-Paris
o Girondins purged from the Convention (May 29-June 2, 1793)→federalist revolts
o Leaders are arrested |
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Term
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Definition
o The “incorruptible” and the Republic of Virtue
o Robespierre joins the Committee of Public Safety (July 27, 1792)
o Supports the poor/lower class
o He didn’t think that the revolution was going far enough
o Greatly feared the internal enemies!
o Most dominate voice on the committee for an extended time
o “Terror is the order of the day” (Sept. 5, 1793)
o Parisian mob surrounded the convention →
o Demanded that the strongest measures and punishment must be extended to those against the revolution (any one against the people)
o All protections were set aside
o The Law of the Maximum
o Series of price controls
o Prices for essential goods were capped
o He argued that coffee and sugar were essential b/c addictive
o This was a profound addition to the revolution
• Radical shift to equalize property between the ppl
• The lower classes wanted a more equal economic system
• This is sort of similar to a communist system (?)
o The Revolutionary calendar introduced
o Wanted to get rid of the Christian Sunday; get rid of 7 day week
o Replaced them with 3 10 day weeks in each month
o The Dechristianization campaign
o Not favored by Robespierre
o Robespierre was a diest and was insistent upon a belief in a supreme being
o Churches closed→renamed temples of reason
o The Fall of Robespierre
o Growing fear
• People plead their cases before he brings their names to attention in the convention
o Robespierre shouted down in the Convention (July 26)
• Due to immense fear of Robespierre
o Coup of 9 Thermidor (July27)
• Robespierre put on the execution list
o Robespierre executed (July 28)
• Attempt at suicide?
• Sansculottes didn’t rally to him in great enough #’s to save him |
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Term
| The Thermidorian Reaction |
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Definition
o Reaction vs. Jacobins (July-Dec. 1794)
o Jacobins seen as too radical→closed
o Economic troubles
o Sansculottes suppressed by national guard
o Convention relying unreasoningly on military to keep it in power
o The “Whiff of Grapeshot” (Oct. 5, 1795)
o Led by Napoleon Bonaparte
o Grapeshot=tiny pellets
o Let loose on the mob→saves convention
o Convention very thankful for Bonaparte
o The “White Terror”
o Color of revolution=red
o Color of reaction=white
• Support a return to the old ways
o People a part of the original terror were hunted down and lynched
o Attempt to get back at the revolutionaries for their terror |
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Term
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Definition
o The Constitution of 1795→ Five-Man Directory
o Indirect elections
• Citizens voted for electors who chose the legislative body
o Executive committee=five man directory
• Chosen by the legislative
o Dismissed most of the results of the 1797 elections
o These were the first free elections in which a large number of monarchists had been elected to return to the councils of government
o Relied on the army for support
o Called on Napoleon Bonaparte |
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Term
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Definition
o The Italian Campaign (1796-1797)
o New style of warfare=rapid movement and decisive action
o Austrians driven out
o Now Napoleon is the most famous general in France (contrary to the hopes of the directory)
o The Coup of Fructidor V (Sept. 1797)
o first true elections→appears that the royalists are going to do very well
o Directly just nullifies the results
o The Egyptian Campaign (1798-9) → War of the Second Coalition
o Napoleon quickly defeats the Egyptians
o But Napoleon gets trapped in Eygpt by Horatio Nelson (Britian)
o Threat of others to France→ Napoleon leaves army in Egypt and returns to France
o Napoleon’s Coup (Nov. 9-10, 1799) →Constitution of 1799 → The Consulate
o New government in France
o Napoleon= first consulate
o France is now essentially a military dictatorship
o For the next 16 years Napoleon is fighting against other powers in Europe
o Errors
o Puts brother in charge of Spain→Penisula wars
o Invades Russia in 1812
• Russia begins to trade with Britian against agreement with France
• Grand Army of 600,000 into Russia
• Take the capital
• Retreat in the fall→bitter winter kills many
• Only 22,000 of 600,000 troops survive |
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Term
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Definition
o Political club to which the egalitarian leaders of the 3rd estate belonged
o Robespeirre was a prominent member of the Jacobins (even president)
o Looked to the Romans for the emphasis on political virtue
o Split with conservative members in 1791→they became the Feullitants
o Members include professionals, government officeholders and lawyers
o Napolean had early Jacobin associations
o Later known as “the Mountain” |
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Term
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Definition
o An Irish Whig politician
o Opposed British radical Thomas Paine
o Published Reflections on the Revolution in 1790→
o Strengthened the conservative cause in Britain
o Aroused sympathy for counterrevolutionary cause→active opposition
o Austria and Prussia express public concern against French revolution
o Argued rights weren’t abstract or natural but results of historical traditions
o Had sympathized with the American revolutionaries
o Deemed the revolution in France a monstrous crime against social order |
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Term
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Definition
o British radical
o Response to Burke→ The Rights of Man (1791-2)
o Defended the French and American revolutions
o Highlighted human rights in general
o Possessing Paine’s writing was risky |
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Term
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Definition
o Civil code established by Napoleon—represented his ideals
o Pivoted on uniformity and indiviualism
o Created on uniform law
o Confirmed the abolition of feudal privileges of all kinds
o Set conditions for exercising property rights
o Insisted on the importance of paternal authority |
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Term
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Definition
o An international trade policy established by Napoleon in 1806
o Sought to starve Britain’s trade and force its surrender
o Failed because:
o British naval blockade
o Internal tariffs
o Hurt the continent more than it helped
o Napoleon’s first serious mistake |
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Term
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Definition
o Napoleon defeated by British admiral Horatio Nelson
o Broke French naval power in the Mediterranean
o Led to a rift with Spain |
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Term
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Definition
o Tsar I of Russia began to trade with Britain against agreements with France
o Napoleon decide to invade Russia-Spring 1812
o Gather Grand Army of 600,000 and march into Russia
o Capture Moscow—Russians burn their own capital down
o Napoleon decides to return to France starting in October 1812
o Brutal, brutal winter
o Only 22,000 soldiers make it back to France |
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Term
| The Battle of the Nations |
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Definition
o October 1813
o Fought near Leipzig
o Allies (Prussia, Russia, Austria, Sweden and Britain) beat France
o Eventually lead to Napoleons 1st exile to Elba |
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Term
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Definition
o Napoleon returns to France and gathers support
o June 15-18, 1815
o Prussia and Britain FINALLY defeat Napoleon for good
o Napoleon exiled to Saint Helena (South Africa) |
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Term
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Definition
o Former slave
o Led the slave rebellion in St. Domingue
o Allies with French army→beat French planters, the British and the Spanish
o 1801-set up constitution:
o Abolished slavery
o Reorganized military
o Established Christianity as state religion
o Made Toussaint governor for life
o Conflict with Napoleon’s conquest
o Jan 1802→ 20,000 French troops sent to bring island under control
o Toussaint captured and died in 1803
o But ultimately, the rebellion was victorious! |
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Term
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Definition
o Leader of the French revolution
o Member of the Committee of Public Safety in 1793
o Helped organize the Terror
o April 1794 he was sent to the guillotine |
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Term
| Abbe Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes |
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Definition
o Member of the 1st estate but was elected as a representative of the 3rd Estate
o Wrote “What is the 3rd Estate?” in 1789
o Questioned the rights of the estate
o Helped provoke the 3rd Estate’s succession from the Estates General
o Unusually radical views |
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