Term
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Definition
o New style of painting
o Moved away from realism and classicism of Renaissance art
o Used distortion to heighten emotional effects
o Consciously rejected rules of perspective |
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Definition
o Exemplified by Peter Paul Rubens
o Even further away from Renaissance
o Emphasizes emotion and drama
o Complex in composition |
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Term
| Domenikos Theotocopolous-“El Greco” (1541-1614) |
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Definition
o Most important example of mannerism
o Religious Scenes
o Christ Driving the Traders from the Temple (1600)
• One of most dramatic of his paintings
• Enlongated/distorted figures
• Sharp colors on Christ contrast with pastels surrounding
o Portraits-Portrait of a Cardinal (1600) |
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| Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) |
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Definition
o Flemish Baroque Master
o Lived in Southern Netherlands
o Devot Catholic
o The Drama of the Baroque
o Hippopotamus and Crocodile Hunt (1616)
• Lots of action
• Moves away from strict realism
• Hopes to achieve dramatic/emotional effect
o The Rubenesque Female
o Venus at a Mirror (1615)
• rather plump female |
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Term
| Diego Velazquez (1599-1660) |
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Definition
o Patronized by Philip IV and Olivares (Spanish Court painter)
o Worked most exclusively in Madrid
o Spanish had a lot of money (even in decline) for art
o One of the most famous painters at the time
o Portraits |
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Term
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Definition
• Most famous of his work
• Portrait of the royal daughters
• Painted himself into the portrait…and he is painting in the picture
o Triumphs
o Everyday Life |
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Term
| Bartolome Estbean Murillo (1618-1682) |
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Definition
o The last master of the Siglo de Oro
o The Prodigal Son Series (1660’s)—told story
o The Prodigal Son Receives His Portion of the Inheritance
o The Departure of the Prodigal Son
o The Prodigal Son Feasting with Courtesans
o The Prodigal Son Driven Out
o The Prodigal Son Feeding Swine
o The Return of the Prodigal Son
o Portraits
o Scenes of Children |
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Term
| Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) |
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Definition
o Dutch Master
o One of most famous of his time—use of light and shadow
o Everyday Scenes
o Dr. Nicolaes Tulp’s Demonstration of the Anatomy of an Arm (1632)
• Realistic scene of dissection of a cadaver
• Dutch republic is a prominent place of the Scientific revolution so Rembrandt had access to these scnees
o The Night-Watch (1642)
• Turning over of the guard
• Took place during war with the Spanish
• Use of color and light to highlight “light” figure
o Portraits and Self-Portraits
o Biblical Scenes
o The Angel Stopping Abraham from Sacrificing Isaac to God (1635)
• Light and shadow |
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Term
| William Hogarth (1697-1764) |
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Definition
• English artist best known for his moral and satirical engravings and paintings
• The Rake’s Progress (1732)
o 1st scene: being fitted for clothing
o 2nd: makes appearance to society
o 3rd: gets drunk
o 4th: returns home in Satanic chair (blown through father’s money)
o 5th: Marries a rich widow
o 6th: Drinks and gambles again
o 7th: Debters prison
o 8th: Loonie prison
o Hogarth is mocking the way of life of rich young men during this time period
• Beer Street and Gin Lane (1751)
o Satiric attack of the societies reliance upon alcohol |
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Term
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Definition
• Known for:
o Order
o Lots of complicated parts have to work together |
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Term
| Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) |
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Definition
• Venetian violinist and composer most noted for his influence on the Late Baroque concerto form (orchestra background with a focus on a solo of a single instrument)
• 3-movement pattern:
o fast
o slow
o fast
• The Four Seasons, concerti for strings
• Aka the red Priest |
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Term
| George Friedrich Handel (16885-1749) |
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Definition
• German-born composer, most of whose career was spend in England
• Famous for oratorios, such as The Messiah (1741)
o Oratorio=orchestral work with voices, centered on portraying a biblical scene
• Wrote operas and instrumental pieces such as Water Music (1717) and Music for the Royal Fireworks (1749)
• Very popular in England |
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Term
| Johan Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) |
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Definition
• German organist and composer
• Influence even into the modern age
• Famous works
o Toccata and Fugue in D Minor
o The six Brandenburg Concertos
o Passion According to St. Matthew
• Technical perfection
o Air on G
• Revival and Influence |
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Term
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Definition
• Much lighter/less complex than Baroque
• Emphasized order, harmony and balance
• Very distinctive from Baroque |
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Term
| Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) |
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Definition
• Austrian composer and musical genius; perfected all the classical genres of music
• A Precocious Genius
• Famous Works
o Eine Kleine Nachtmusik
o Overture to The Marriage of the Figaro
o The Requiem Mass
• Influence |
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Term
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Definition
• The “age of reason”; not an age of fanaticism and superstition
• Core Ideals
o Faith in Reason
o Faith in Scientific Method
o Suspicion of superstition and tradition
o Generally optimistic
• REVIEW THESE NOTES!!! |
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Term
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Definition
• The “age of reason”; not an age of fanaticism and superstition
• Core Ideals
o Faith in Reason
o Faith in Scientific Method
o Suspicion of superstition and tradition
o Generally optimistic
• REVIEW THESE NOTES!!! |
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Term
| Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Second, Baron de (1689-1755) |
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Definition
• Perhaps the most important and most influential Enlightenment figure in terms of our experience in the United States
• From an old noble family in France; educated in law
• First became famous when published The Persian Letters anonymously (1721)
o Fictional account of a westerner traveling through the exotic lands of Persia in the east
o He was actually commenting on French practices and customs, but dressed them in Persian garb so as not to endure a lot of spite
• Wrote The Spirit of the Laws (1748)
o Serious treatise—possibly the most influential work of the Enlightenment
o Questioned how different environments, histories and religious traditions shaped the law
• Proposed a threefold classification of the states
o Republic-governed by many (elite aristocracy or the people); virtue
o Monarchy-single authority in accordance with the law; honor
o Despotism-single ruler unchecked by law; worst in his view; fear
• Admired British separation and balance of power; CHECKS AND BALANCES! |
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Term
| The Spirit of the Laws (1748) |
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Definition
• By Montesquieu
• Rejected classical tripartite formal divisions of government, instead looked at values that motivated each type: monarchy, anarchy (despotism), or democracy – of which the Greeks had seen all three
o Monarchy: motivated by honor
o Democracy or republic (his preferred form): motivated by virtue
o Despotism: motivated by fear
• Argued for a separation of powers
o One will not become so dominant as to arbitrarily command the others (tyrannical leadership, despotic, whatever adjective you like; absolute)
o The great nobles of France should return to their proper roles in the government and have these commoners staffing these government offices
• → immediate fame, but placed on Index in 1751
o As Newton had discovered the laws that explains the physical universe, Montesquieu uncovered the laws that governed politics
o He said that religious has a function, regardless if its true or not (doesn’t endear him to the church) |
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Term
| François-Marie Arouet, a.k.a. Voltaire (1694-1778) |
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Definition
• Was a popularizer of theories; wasn’t necessarily an original thinker
• From middle-class family; Father and Uncle
o Despised his father; became much more like his uncle than his father
• Exile in England (1726-1728)
o Became known as a witty writer; but made fun of the wrong person and was exiled to London; spend about 2 ½ years in England → leads to his adoration of all things English
• Philosophical Letters (1734)
• Flees to Madame du Châtelet → publishes Elements of the Philosophy of Newton (1738) → fairly decisive shift toward Newtonian physics (rather than Cartesian)
o Another aspect of “Englishness” he liked to promote was John Locke; his epistemology—rejection of innate ideas and accepting experiential knowledge
• Work on Encyclopedia
• Candide (1758)
• Correspondence and Activism
o Activism – became involved in what he considered notorious cases of injustice in the judicial system
o Used his fame to shine light on irrationalities and barbarism of judicial practices
• Legacy
o Tireless advocate of many things
o Big proponent of religious toleration and separation of church and state (he was clearly a deist)
o Advocate for reason, and that it could improve the world
o Early voice of reason against oppression, torture, cruelty; all those things he thought of barbaric and unworthy of rational creatures |
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Term
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Definition
o Friend of Montesquieu and Voltaire; From upper middle class
o Early crisis of faith →hostile to religious belief (more than Voltaire)
o Made his early living as a hack ghost writer for other people
o Gained reputation with:
o Philosophic Thoughts (1746)—veiled attack on Christianity, directly
o Indiscreet Jewels (1748)—a rather pornographic novel
o Essay on Blindness (1749)
o One of the earliest statement of evolutionary theory in European writing
o If the universe is just the physical universe that we interact with, and its just matter; then its obvious that there isn’t a God
o Work on the Encyclopedia (1751-1765)
o This is his most significant work
o Supplement to the Travels of Bougainville (1772)
o Bougainville went to Tahiti and noted some of the different customs of those people; particularly, the lack of monogamy
o Diderot took to that, using it to say that the Christian ideal was garbage |
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Term
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Definition
o Inspired by Ephraim Chamber’s Cyclopedia (1728)
o In France, there was a movement towards gathering all the new thoughts and discoveries of science and religion amongst other topics, into one collection to make it more easily accessible.
o Editors—Mathematician Jean d’Alembert (1745) and Denis Diderot (1746)
o Sought to change the general way of thinking
o Wanted to show how science could promote progress/alleviate misery
o Funded by subscription – advertise that this work would be done; ask for people to finance the work and they’ll send a copy when its finished
o 28 volumes
o Published between 1751 and 1772
o Include all the latest science
o Included old topics approached from the Enlightenment perspective
o Enlightened authors: Voltaire and Diderot contributed
o Editing Tone→Diderot was that one who contributed most to the anti-clerical, anti-religious tone of the work. Problem of censorship.
o Influence→Brought these topics to a much broader audience
o French government banned Encyclopedia from being published (1759) |
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Term
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Definition
o Truly the most origin thinker of the period
o Early childhood in Geneva (1712-1722)
o Father = big influence on him, endearing him to the republican constitution of the city of Geneva. Father skipped town; mother died; and sent to live with his uncles, with whose family he did not get along
o Baronne de Warens – society to convert Protestant boys to Catholicism
o Music and Philosophy (Excellent music teacher and a talented musician)
• Paris→makes a name for himself with some composition (operas)
o In Paris, exposed to other enlightenment thinkers (Diderot)
o Therese Lavasseur : 5 children with her→ put all in a founding home
o A Discourse on the Science and the Arts
o Felt Voltaire/Diderot were trying to make the world more civilized
o Rousseau said that civilization doesn’t improve man at all; rather, civilization is the source of corruption in man.
o Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755)
o The Social Contract (1762)
o Quarrel with Voltaire and Diderot (1762) – Voltaire/Diderot, most of the enlightenment thinkers, wanted to make civilization better, more humane; Rousseau felt civilization was the problem
o Emile (1762)
o Legacy
o Provided the first widespread critique of civilization itself
o Early and important critique of property→influenced Marx and Lenin
o Emphasizing emotion over reason--an early impetus for romanticism
o Most influential on the subject on education, after Locke, through Emile
o His writings mark the beginning of the end of the age of reason |
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Term
| The Social Contract (1762) |
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Definition
o Starts with one of the most famous lines in political literature, “Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains.”
o Equality in this social experiment, which is unequal in its origins, true equality can only come from republican liberty; true order can only come from a self-imposed law; that is, the people have to be included in forming the laws of government, otherwise, it’s just slavery
o One of the controversial aspects of this work is the concept of the general will (doesn’t really clarify this well)
o Public good, public interest, the common good—everyone is for this—versus the corrupt special interest; though, how to you know what is a public good and which is a special interest
o Rousseau said there was a general will in society that really was for the public good that looked for all the inherent liberties and good things in that society
o Doesn’t really define the general will; though, it can never be wrong. How can you determine the general will? Majority vote? No, b/c sometimes that can be wrong. The trouble is this concept can lead to Stalinist totalitarianism to democracy.
o He believes that there was a necessity for civil religion; some sort of religious belief in a transcendent being or truth was necessary for a society to function; mainly used to educated people in to becoming good citizens. He was very dismissive for Christianity to fulfill that role. Christianity may be true, but it’s not useful in a political context. |
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Term
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Definition
o Prominent member of Scottish Enlightenment
o Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
o No demonstrative proof of facts is possible; all impressions that you get from your senses are contingent, not absolute
o Where Locke said the only way to know things is through your senses; can’t you senses deceive you?
o There’s no logical connection between cause and effect; there’s no logical reason that the sun will rise in the east; lots of experience that says it will, but no reason
o This was the most radical challenge to epistemology
o Critic of miracles in (Of Miracles, 1748) and Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779) |
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Term
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Definition
o Scottish political economist and father of modern economist
o The Wealth of Nations (1776)
o Four stages of Humanity (one of first to describe human development)
• hunter gather → pastural → agricultural → commercial
o “The Invisible Hand”
• Invisible hand was the best guide for economic activity
• Individuals should pursue their own interests without competition from state-chartered monopolies or legal restraints
• The reason somebody will sell you something is they need money so that, in turn, they can purchase what they need; it is not due to the benevolence of shopkeepers
• Arguments against mercantilism and for benefits of competition
o Written vs. “Moral Economy” theories and Mercantilism
• Even without specific government policy, the invisible hand will determine reasonable prices through the law of supply and demand
• Issue with mercantilism, which says that trade has to be regulated at every stage by government to elicit the desired effect in the economy—he did NOT agree
• Issue of central premise of wealth in mercantilism. What is wealth? Mercantilism says that its gold and silver. No! it is all the goods and services that are exchanged
o He argues for a much freer market than what he experienced, though this does not mean you should like or admire the greedy businessman but they do produce things that area benefit to society as a whole |
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Term
| Frederick William I (1713-1740) |
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Definition
o Ruled Prussia; Grandson of Frederick William
o Loathed everything French
o Economic Policy
o Cheapskate→he insisted on paying the same taxes that everyone else paid.
o This left Prussia in a better situation than the rest of Europe
o Mercantilist policy: High protective tariffs; initiate Prussian industries
o Administrative policy
o Streamlined Prussian bureaucracy; Very efficient
o Educational Policy
o Compulsory primary education (1717); state funded
o Everyone MUST have a primary education
o Foreign Policy
o Policy of peace→ Kept out of most wars in Europe (except one short one)
o Wanted to create military but never really wanted to use it
o Military –“The Drill-Sergeant king”
o The Canton System (1733)
o The Militarization of Culture
• Everything of value was tied to military goals, values, morals, etc.
• Army is the central organizing institution→strong state
o Legacy
o Left centralized and efficient administration
o Greatly expanded size of the army
• 38,000 men in beginning of reign→83,000 men at his death
• 3rd largest army in Europe (the two bigger ones came from countries with much larger populations)
• All paid for by taxes
• Best trained army in Europe
o Left 8 million taller (Prussian money) surplus |
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Term
| Frederick II “the Great” (r. 1740-1786) |
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Definition
o Love for French art and culture→conflict with father (Frederick William)
o The Pragmatic Sanction and the Issue of the Austrian Succession
o Problem in Austria among Habsburgs
o Charles the VI only had a daughter…no sons
o Charles wanted to keep the emperor name in the family
o Charles went around Europe trying to buy off the succession
o He ensures that his daughter, Maria Theresa, is empress
o Frederick accedes to the Throne (May 31, 1740)
o King of Prussia Brandenburg
o Charles VI dies (Oct. 20, 1740)→Maria Theresa succeeds
o Frederick presses his claims to Silesia→
o Silesia was a very wealthy Austrian province
o Wants Silesia in exchange for supporting Maria Theresa as the empress
o Maria Theresa does not agree
o →the War of the Austrian Succession |
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Term
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Definition
o Empress of Austria
o Daughter of Charles VI→becomes the first empress of the Holy Roman Empire when he dies on Oct. 20, 1740
o Fredrick William I, of Prussia, wants Silesia in exchange for his support
o Maria Theresa does not grant this→war of Austrian Succession
o Maria unable to recover Silesia
o Enlightened absolutism
o Centralized administration in Vienna
o Increased taxation
o Created a professional standing army
o Tightened control over the church
o Statewide system of primary education
o More liberal criminal code
o Daughter is Marie Antoinette |
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Term
| The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) |
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Definition
o Frederick was able to mobilize his army (that was built by his father) very quickly and he didn’t give Theresa time to create an army
o The Battle of Mollwitz (April 10, 1741)
o The Widening of the War (1742)
o France enters-against Hapsburgs
o Britian enters-to help defend Hapsburgs
o Stalemate in the West (1745-1748)
o Prussia re-enters the war in order to secure their holding of Silesia
o Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)
o Administering Silesia
o Allowed religious toleration (Fredrick doesn’t have a strong religious affiliation)
o Fredrick only wanted taxes from Silesia; didn’t really care about pushing them around in any other way
o Elizabeth I of Russia (r. 1741-1761)
o Detested Fredrick
o Tried to reform Russia; used Prussia as a model
o Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780)
o The Diplomatic Revolution (1756)
o Prussia and Britain had allied
o The War Clouds Re-Gather (1755-1756) |
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Term
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Definition
o Not hard worker like his father; Uninterested in governing; Indecisive
o “The Father of the Nation”--Lots of mistresses
o Dominated by a series of Ministers and Mistresses
o The Ministry of Fleury (1726-1743)
o Madame du Pompadour (1721-1764)
o The continuing problem of debt→
o The war with Austria adds massive amount of debt to the debt that is already present in France from Louis XIV’s wars (his father)
o The Edict of Marly (1749)→
o Land taxed equally, despite your status—no tax exemptions
o Nobles and clergyman cause a fit
o Resistance→the King backs down (1751)
o The claims of the Parliament of Paris
o Opposition to royal policy
o Underground literature—poissonnades
o Very scandalous…pretty much porn
o Uncomplimentary to Pompadour and Louis
o This undermines the faith in Louis as a divinely chosen leader
• Would God really choose a porno to serve as King
o France in the 18th century
o Despite increasing weakness of Monarchy and the growing debt, it was a time of Prosperity
• Government can’t tap into this prosperity due to resistance from the nobles and other prosperous individuals
o Population Growth = 20 million→28 million
o Uneven growth in manufacturing
• Most growth is agricultural and trade rather than industry
• Growth in trade and cloth |
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Term
| Andre-Hercule de Fleury (1726-1743) |
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Definition
o Cardinal and Tutor
o Desire to Retrench
o Not get involved in wars
o ???
o Limitation on expenditures with Controller Orry
o Cut back on subsidies to allies
o Cut back expenditures of the court
o Only really supported spending money on infrastructure of France
o Improving infrastructure
o →Peace and prosperity
o Peace with Austria, War with Austria
o Despite Fleury’s best efforts France ended up going to war |
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Term
| Madame du Pompadour (1721-1764) |
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Definition
o Louis’ mistress from 1745-1750; advisor from 1750-1764
o Patron of art and literature
o Simpathetic to enlightenment ideals
o She was in favor of reforming the tax code
o Very influential upon Louis’ actions
o Underground literature—poissonnades
o Very scandalous…pretty much porn
o Uncomplimentary to Pompadour and Louis
o This undermines the faith in Louis as a divinely chosen leader
• Would God really choose a porno to serve as King |
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