Term
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Definition
Bandura was a student of behaviorism:
Agreed with the premise that behavior can be conditioned. Also agreed that reinforcement and punishment could influence future behavior. However,
disagreed that cognition could be acknowledged but not studied. |
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Term
| What did Bandura focus on? |
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Definition
| Bandura turned his focus to the unobservable such as learning of behaviors, values, and expectations. |
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Term
| What is observational (vicarious) learning? |
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Definition
Through the use of observational (vicarious) learning
Argued that individuals could learn behaviors by observing others receiving reinforcement and punishment |
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Term
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Definition
Referred to the actions and responses of the observed individuals
A form of vicarious learning Pervasive means of transmitting values, attitudes, thought patterns, and behavior patterns. Models serve as exemplars of appropriate roles |
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Term
| 1963 "Bobo Doll" Experiments |
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Definition
Procedure:
Preschool boys (n=48) and girls (n=48)
3 experimental groups that observed an aggressive model and 1 control group
E1: observed a live adult
E2: observed a filmed adult
E3: observed a cartoon character
C: no observation of a model
Researchers observed whether children modeled the aggressive behavior
Results:
All 3 experimental groups showed more aggression than the control group
Children in experimental groups were more likely to replicate behavior if they saw a model get reinforced |
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Term
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Definition
| Direct interactions in which children are reinforced for appropriate behavior and punished for inappropriate behavior |
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Term
| Modeling is not simple imitation. What is it? |
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Definition
Bandura cautions that “Modeling is not simply a process of response mimicry”.
Modeling does include the “how to” for behaviors, But it also includes “rules” and social structures embedded in those behaviors |
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Term
| Observed/Vicarious learning or modeling |
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Definition
| Observing different performances by models and associated environmental consequences of those performances. We are constantly observing our own and others' behaviors and the environmental consequences of those behaviors. |
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Term
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Definition
| Remember that Bandura put emphasis on the ______ perspective and thought process |
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Term
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Definition
| Bandura believed people ______ who they pay attention to and what behaviors they model |
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Term
| You are more likely to model behaviors when: |
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Definition
-You are able to pay appropriate attention
-You remember what you see
-You have the ability to reproduce the behavior
-You are motivated to be like the model
-The model is likeable, powerful, prestigious
-The model experiences positive consequences
-The model is similar to you
e.g., same gender, same political or religious background, same major, same career |
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Term
| What are some examples of models? |
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Definition
-Parents as models for children
-Older siblings as models for youngers siblings
-Peers as models for peers
-Teachers as models for students
-Coaches as models for athletes
-Media as models for everyone!! |
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Term
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Definition
-Individual observes the model getting a consequence for a behavior
-Individual then assumes he/she will get the same consequence for performing the same behavior |
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Term
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Definition
-The observer assumes the model received an unobserved benefit from performing the behavior.
-This assumption is based on what they he/she did observe and the interpretation made of ambiguous events.
e.g., model’s pleasure or pride OR model’s withdrawal or shame |
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Term
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Definition
The model can be ______ when observers imitates them. Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.
Note: We may vicariously feel the same emotions as the model via classical conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
| An individual may start engaging in new (novel) behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| An individual may increase or decrease a behavior that is already known |
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Term
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Definition
| An individual may strengthen or weaken personal inhibitions |
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Term
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Definition
| Emotional reactions can be changed, both in type and intensity. |
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Term
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
(Triadic Reciprocal Causation) |
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Definition
Person
-Personality characteristics
-Schema
-Standards
-Self-regulation skills
Behavior
-Activity patterns
-Actions
-Frequency and intensity of behaviors
Environment
-Social influences
-Operant conditioning (reinforcement contingencies)
-Modeling
To consider:
There are no fixed patterns of influence and influences may differ in strength.The three focus in on bidirectional rather than unidirectional effects |
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Term
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Definition
The ________ is not the same for everyone.
It is imposed (physical and social structural mandates which can range from low dictates/eglaitarian societies or rigid dictates/traditional societies.
It is selected in which choices one makes in terms of associates, activities, pursuits, etc. can have an affect.
It is also constructed in which construction of symbol systems and meanings can have affect.
Individuals see/interpret/construe the environment “Human development is influenced by the construed environment rather than mechanistically by the actual environment” |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that you can master situations and produce positive outcomes. Beliefs and values about how well we can control our own lives that is a result of very complex observational learning. It is related to resilience |
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Term
| Self-efficacy develops from: |
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Definition
Environmental responses to previous performances,Observational learning,
Social persuasion,and Emotional states |
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Term
| Self-efficacy influences: |
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Definition
Effort and investment, perseverance and motivation, choices and aspirations, relationship choices, and risk-taking behaviors
Thus self-efficacy influences the environment you make for yourself |
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Term
| Social Perspectives (difference between social perspectives and cognitive perspectives) |
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Definition
| The social perspective states that adaptation occurs when the individual learns to participate in the world. That primary learning activity occurs within a social context. We learn roles, behaviors and attitudes that are socially appropriate. We "do" adaptation. |
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Term
| Cognitive Perspectives (difference between social perspectives and cognitive perspectives) |
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Definition
| The cognitive perspectives states that adaptation occurs because the individual is actively seeking to make sense of the world. Primary learning activity takes place within the individual. We learn concepts (ways of organizing our knowledge about the world). We "are" adaptation |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive perspectives focus on how we ____ about the world and _____ |
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Term
| What does the cognitive perspective focus on? |
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Definition
| Focus is on the complex, unobservable, mental processes that allow us to acquire knowledge. |
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Term
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Definition
Concepts are learned and organized into _____.
_______ is a way of thinking about the world. A way of organizing information, concepts, and knowledge |
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Term
| What does the cognitive perspective put emphasis on? |
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Definition
Emphasis is on constructing a worldview that makes sense
Learners are motivated to actively seek out and organize information.
Even our identities are constructed! We learn about ourselves by observing ourselves and comparing to the schemas we have created for the wider world |
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Term
| Who were 3 major cognitive theorist? |
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Definition
| Piaget, Bruner, and Vygotsky |
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Term
| three different approaches with some important similarities (what did Piaget, Bruner, and Vygotsky all have in common?) |
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Definition
1)Emphasis on an active learner. i.e intrinsic drive to make sense of the world
2) Emphasis on development. All three suggest qualitative changes in the way we think and learn as we get older
3)Emphasis on the importance of early learning. E.g., pre-learning development |
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Term
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Definition
| Adding to and using existing schema |
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Term
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Definition
| Altering existing schema when they no longer work |
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Term
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Definition
| is the process of developing skills to balance assimilation and accommodation |
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Term
| Piaget stage theory for cognitive development |
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Definition
1) Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)Focus on physical exploration of the world
2)Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)
Focus on mental exploration of the world (through language)
3) Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)Focus on reasoning about the real world (exploring relationships and causation)
4) Formal Operational Stage (11 to 15 years)Focus on hypothetical, deductive, and abstract reasoning (exploring what ifs)
Keep in mind: Piaget likely underestimated children’s abilities due to some issues with his research design
e.g., sample, lack of realism, focus on mathematical reasoning |
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Term
| Bottom line for Piaget's developmental perspective |
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Definition
1)Children's thinking qualitatively changes as they develop
2) Children are more limited and formal than adults. They have a tendency to be focused on observable characteristics or remembering how things were observed at an earlier time. Too much emphasis on the way things are/were. Little flexibility
3)Thinking become more dynamic as we mature. We become better able to consider transitional states, transformations, abstracts, and hypothetical |
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Term
| Children lack object permanence |
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Definition
Children think qualitatively differently than adults.
Example: Children lack object permanence – they think so formally (and so focused on observable) that they can become confused when their opportunity to physically (in this case, visually) explore the world is removed |
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Term
| Why does thinking change? (3 things according to Piaget) |
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Definition
-Maturation
Piaget believed developmental changes could be predicted to occur in certain time periods (a stage theory)
Culture and education may impact times, but in general, development is linked to age
Perspective results in a focus on readiness
-Physical experience in the world
Piaget emphasized the importance of an individual engaging in physical exploration
-Social experience in the world
Piaget also left space for education and the social transmission of knowledge. But recall the emphasis on readiness that limits the possible education of younger children |
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Term
| Bruner's modes of representations (3) |
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Definition
-Enactive Representation (action-based)Recall Piaget’s emphasis on reflexive physical exploration of the environment
-Iconic Representation (image-based)
Consider how your memories must have been encoded before you had language
-Symbolic Representation (language-based)Allows for the introduction of more formal forms of education |
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Term
| Implications of Bruner's Perspective |
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Definition
1) We continue to have and use early modes of representation throughout our lives
2)Symbolic (language-based) representation is the most detailed and complex
3)Once language skills are developed, even young learners can learn any knowledge. Unlike Piaget, there's no emphasis on readiness
4)Teaching and education should follow a spiral instruction pathway |
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Term
| Vygotsky and the role of culture |
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Definition
Vygotsky created a cultural theory for cognitive development.
Political impetus. Vygotsky was working during the period of Russian revolution that led to the formation of the Soviet State in 1922.
His primary interest was in the role of culture and social interaction in child development |
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Term
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Definition
| ________specific to cultural contexts. How children create meaning using dialogue, speech patterns, written language etc. common to their culture |
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Term
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Definition
Vygotsky believed psychologists were too concerned with either _______ mechanisms (i.e. psychoanalytic perspectives) or _____ mechanisms (i.e., behaviorist perspectives)
He argued that the intersection between _____ and ______ is where learning happens. i.e., the context in which an individual tries to make internal sense of the external world |
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Term
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Definition
What we learn is a set of cognitive tools
-tools are ways of thinking about and solving problems
-tools are "shared" or distributed in cultural contexts
-individuals adapt to their cultures by learning tools/habits of mind |
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Term
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Definition
But he argued that development _____ in social interaction and is highly responsive to individual contexts. Individuals _______ learn spontaneously in isolation. Development can be defined as the "transformation of socially shared activities into internalized processes"
Implications:
There is no universal knowledge
Knowledge is situated and collaborative
Knowledge is gained through a shared use of tools and internalized |
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Term
| Vygotsky's focus on development |
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Definition
Thinking develops (qualitatively changes) with maturation
Infants are born with reflexes (ways to interact with environment)
Children come in contact with tools
Tools are used in social interactions with a more skilled peer or adult
Tools are internalized as higher mental functions. We learn to use tools independent of the social interaction. We learn to think in ways consistent with the tools we have learned |
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Term
| Learning does not occur in isolation |
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Definition
Children are born reliant on caregivers for:
Survival (recall the evolutionary and evolutionary psychology perspectives)
Mediating learning of new tools (Vygotsky's sociocultural perspective) |
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Term
| Zone of Proximal Development |
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Definition
Children learn best when they work with parents, teachers, mentors, or more advanced peers
More advanced learners provide SCAFFOLDING to help novices complete tasks they would not be able to complete on their own
Zone of Proximal Development is constantly moving as learners master new tools/skills |
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Term
| Zone of Proximal Development (lower limit) |
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Definition
| level of accomplishment an individual can reach on his/her own |
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Term
| Zone of Proximal Development (Upper limit) |
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Definition
| level of accomplishment an individual can reach with scaffolding (assistance) |
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Term
| Recap Vysgotsky's zone proximal development |
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Definition
Teachers share cultural tools with students when they work together to solve tasks
Teachers use scaffolding to support learners so that learners can eventually use tools on their own
Learners internalize tools as higher mental functions |
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Term
| Vsygotsky (Relationship between language and thought) |
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Definition
Language is a cultural tool
But words have many meanings (language can be used in many ways)
Language is internalized as a habit of mind
Process can be observed with children:
outer speech -> inner speech -> private speech |
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Term
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Definition
| allows us to construct shared meanings |
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Term
| How long does pregnancy last? |
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Definition
Pregnancy lasts on average 40 weeks
Weeks are measured from the date of the menstrual cycle
Fertilization likely occurs around 2 weeks after last menstrual cycle |
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Term
| The 3 trimesters of pregnancy |
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Definition
First Trimester is from fertilization to 13 weeks
Second Trimester is from 14 weeks to 27 weeks
Third Trimester is from 28 weeks to birth |
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Term
| When is the baby considered to be at full-term? |
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Definition
Full-term is 37 weeks
But babies born between 39 and 41 weeks are healthier
Babies born earlier than 37 weeks are considered pre-term |
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Term
| When does the baby have a 50/50 chance of surviving? |
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Definition
| Birth at 24 weeks is considered the point at which a baby has a 50/50 survival rate |
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Term
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Definition
| Fetal Development proceeds from head to feet |
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Term
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Definition
| Fetal development proceeds from center to extremities |
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Term
| Embryo Protection Hypothesis |
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Definition
| 75-90% of women experience experience morning sickness. This occurs cross-culturally. |
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Term
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Definition
Is associated with environmental dangers. E.g., smoke and smog
Is associated with food dangers
e.g., alcohol, caffeinated drinks (coffee, tea, cocoa), meat (particularly fried and BBQ), bitter green vegetables
Morning sickness protects the fetus in early stages of pregnancy. Women who do not experience morning sickness are more likely to miscarry. Peaks 2-4 weeks after conception (when fetus is most vulnerable). Disappears by the 14th week (when organogenesis is complete) |
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Term
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Definition
| _________ exist such that irregularities development results in major defects or even death. E.g., exposure to teratogens in early pregnancy (thalidomide example) |
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Term
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Definition
| __________ exist such that irregularities in development result in non-normative but non-life-threatening issues in development. E.g., vision and language development |
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Term
| Learning and Adaptation for infants. |
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Definition
Infants are limited in the ways they can explore and navigate their environments
Different theoretical perspectives suggest different means of learning and adaptation
Cognitive perspectives focus on exploration in the environment via primitive reflexes. i.e., reflexes that are exhibited in normal infants but not in adults
Psychosexual and psychosocial perspectives focus on the importance of the bond with the primary caregiver (attachment)
Learning and behavioral perspectives focus on interactions with caregivers both prenatally and during infancy
Interestingly, evolutionary perspectives focus on all 3 as adaptive EPMs |
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Term
| Rooting (primitive reflexes, cognitive) |
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Definition
| infant turns head toward anything that strokes cheek, opens mouth, turns head to search for object to put in mouth. Disappears at 4 months old. |
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Term
| Sucking (primitive reflexes, cognitive) |
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Definition
| Infant begins sucking when anything touches roof of mouth. |
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Term
| Galant (primitive reflexes, cognitive) |
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Definition
| Infant turns toward a touch or stroke along the side of the back. Disappears by 4-6 months |
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Term
| Palmar grasp (primitive reflexes, cognitive) |
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Definition
| Reflex that allows infant to grasp anything that touches or strokes across palm. Disappears by 5-6 months. |
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Term
| Moro (primitive reflexes, cognitive) |
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Definition
| startle reaction in which legs and head extend while arms jerk outwards. Arms are then brought back into body, hands clench, and crying begins. Disappears by 3-4 months. |
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Term
| Babinski (primitive reflexes, cognitive) |
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Definition
| toes will fan out when bottom of foot is stroked. Disappears by 12 months. |
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Term
| Stepping (primitive reflexes, cognitive) |
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Definition
| infant attempts to “walk” when soles of feet touch a flat surface. Disappears at 6 weeks. |
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Term
| Swimming (primitive reflexes, cognitive) |
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Definition
| infant placed face down in a pool of water will paddle and kick. Disappears by 4-6 months. |
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Term
| Tonic Neck (Primitive reflexes, cognitive) |
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Definition
| “fencing posture” in which infant whose head has been turned to the side will straighten arm on same side and bend other arm. Disappears by 5-6 months. |
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Term
| How many hours per day do newborns need to sleep? |
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Definition
| 10-21 hours of sleep per day. Tend to settle into adult-like sleeping patterns around 4 months old in the U.S. |
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Term
| Sleeping through the night (babies) |
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Definition
Usually means 5+ hours in a row at night
Bottlefed babies arguably sleep longer
Huge individual differences in sleep patterns |
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Term
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Definition
Newborns enter REM sleep ______ and ________ than adults
REM is about ½ of sleep time for infants and only 1/5 for adults
REM is the most critical part of sleep (where recovery and dreaming occur) |
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Term
| Different views on sleep for infant childbearing in the US. |
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Definition
Crib in separate room vs. co-sleeping
On-demand parenting vs. scheduling/cry it out |
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Term
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Definition
Breastfeeding is more natural and healthy. i.e., that babies are more adapted to this form of nutrition
Breastfeeding is more economical and convenient than bottles and formula
some research suggests that breastfeeding: lower chance of childhood obesity, improves bone mass, lower rate of intestinal problems, improved immune system functioning, lower rate of allergies, improved intelligence, lower rate of SIDS, faster postpartum recovery and return to pre-pregnancy weight for moms, and lower rate of breast cancer for moms. |
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Term
| When are infants fed solid food generally? |
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Definition
| Generally solid food is introduced when infants reach 4-6 months old |
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Term
| Macronutrient Malnutrition |
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Definition
occurs when infants don’t get enough calories. Infants need 50 cal/lb of body weight (more than twice the requirement of adults).Not enough total calories in children who come from poverty conditions.
Not enough calories from fat in children from affluence |
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Term
| Micronutrient Malnutrition |
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Definition
| occurs when infants do not get enough vitamins, minerals, or proteins. Unfortunately becoming more common in the U.S. |
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Term
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Definition
Believe it or not - infants consume ____ much junk food.
In the U.S., 1/3 of infants eat no veggies or fruit. ½ of 8-month-olds are given junk food desserts. By 15-months, French Fries are the most commonly eaten “vegetable” |
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Term
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Definition
Fact: Human infants are born extremely dependent on parents
One evolutionary perspective would argue that: Parents have numerous parenting-specific ____ to raise healthy children. Children have numerous offspring-specific ____ to elicit good parent care |
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Term
| good enough parenting concept |
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Definition
Another perspective argues that it is more efficient and reliable for children to need only minimal-level parenting to survive and become healthy adults.
Scarr (1992) argued for the good enough parenting concept.
Based on genotype and environment effects
Suggests that children seek and elicit environments that are consistent with supporting their own specific characteristics
Evidence comes from the fact that cross-culturally children grow up to be healthy adults regardless of cultural differences in childrearing beliefs and norms |
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Term
|
Definition
Newborns enter REM sleep ______ and ________ than adults
REM is about ½ of sleep time for infants and only 1/5 for adults
REM is the most critical part of sleep (where recovery and dreaming occur) |
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Term
| Different views on sleep for infant childbearing in the US. |
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Definition
Crib in separate room vs. co-sleeping
On-demand parenting vs. scheduling/cry it out |
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Term
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Definition
Breastfeeding is more natural and healthy. i.e., that babies are more adapted to this form of nutrition
Breastfeeding is more economical and convenient than bottles and formula
some research suggests that breastfeeding: lower chance of childhood obesity, improves bone mass, lower rate of intestinal problems, improved immune system functioning, lower rate of allergies, improved intelligence, lower rate of SIDS, faster postpartum recovery and return to pre-pregnancy weight for moms, and lower rate of breast cancer for moms. |
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Term
| When are infants fed solid food generally? |
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Definition
| Generally solid food is introduced when infants reach 4-6 months old |
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Term
| Macronutrient Malnutrition |
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Definition
occurs when infants don’t get enough calories. Infants need 50 cal/lb of body weight (more than twice the requirement of adults).Not enough total calories in children who come from poverty conditions.
Not enough calories from fat in children from affluence |
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Term
| Micronutrient Malnutrition |
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Definition
| occurs when infants do not get enough vitamins, minerals, or proteins. Unfortunately becoming more common in the U.S. |
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Term
|
Definition
Believe it or not - infants consume ____ much junk food.
In the U.S., 1/3 of infants eat no veggies or fruit. ½ of 8-month-olds are given junk food desserts. By 15-months, French Fries are the most commonly eaten “vegetable” |
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Term
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Definition
Fact: Human infants are born extremely dependent on parents
One evolutionary perspective would argue that: Parents have numerous parenting-specific ____ to raise healthy children. Children have numerous offspring-specific ____ to elicit good parent care |
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Term
| good enough parenting concept |
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Definition
Another perspective argues that it is more efficient and reliable for children to need only minimal-level parenting to survive and become healthy adults.
Scarr (1992) argued for the good enough parenting concept.
Based on genotype and environment effects
Suggests that children seek and elicit environments that are consistent with supporting their own specific characteristics
Evidence comes from the fact that cross-culturally children grow up to be healthy adults regardless of cultural differences in childrearing beliefs and norms |
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Term
| In early infancy, researchers are very interested in what? |
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Definition
-Formation of bonds between infant and caregiver
-Short-term effects of infant-child relationship
-Long-term effects of parenting behavior |
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Term
| Modern research is grounded in what historical perspectives? |
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Definition
Psychoanalytic theories like Freud and Erickson.
Animal studies such as ethology and behaviorism |
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Term
| Review of Freud's oral stage |
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Definition
Symbiotic relationship between infant and mother. Source of pleasure is the mouth.
Weaning crisis. Nursing forms a bond
Infant cannot separate self from mother. Too much or too little gratification can lead to a fixation
Fixation can lead to oral behaviors and personality. Ex. Nail biting, chewing on gum and pens. Ex. Overly dependent upon others |
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Term
| Review of Erikson's Trust vs. Mistrust Stage |
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Definition
At birth, infants’ world becomes less secure. Which leads to an importance of caring and consistent caregiver. Erikson expanded on Freud
The most important thing parents can provide is a stable and loving environment
Modern Perspective: Is Trust vs. Mistrust a one-time crisis?
Trust vs. Mistrust may occur at any time in life.Emphasizes understanding of self and beginning of independence |
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Term
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Definition
Adaptation that allows young animal to follow parents
Imprinting is due to a learning process early in life. Imprinting involves the response to auditory and/or visual stimuli and “Instinct” which is a Innate released mechanism. Possibly a more basic mechanism than bonding in primates. |
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Term
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Definition
| Primates bond when mother accurately provides for infant's needs. This can involve food (Freud) which is physical, and or comfort (Erikson) which is social. Social relationships are most important for primates including humans. This was found by researchers like Bowlby and Ainsworth |
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Term
|
Definition
Bond between infant and caregiver similar to imprinting for humans and can result in infant gaining or maintaining proximity to caregiver
Recall evolutionary psychology arguments:Attachment solves the adaptive problem of infant survival
During formation of bond:
-Synchrony
After bond is formed:
-Stranger Anxiety (peaks 12 months)
-Separation Anxiety (peaks 13-15 months)
-Social Referencing (improves in 2nd year) |
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Term
| Attachment Functions across the lifespan |
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Definition
Bonds between infant and caregiver become patterns/habitual ways of thinking about relationships
Patterns are repeated in adult interactions
Working models of attachment (like mental presets for social relationships. Some examples are: Are others caring and kind? Am I the kind of person who receives care and kindness? |
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Term
| How are attachments formed? (for Bowlby) |
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Definition
Stages of Attachment Formation:
-Non-focused orienting and signaling
Preference for and behavior toward human figures
-Focus on one or more figures (3 mo.)
Infant distinguishes familiar and unfamiliar people
-Secure base behavior (6 mo.)
Improved locomotor skills allow infants to explore. Exploration is facilitated near attachment figure(s)
Result: internal working models (expectations):
Are others available, reliable, affectionate, and a safe base for exploration? Models are formed continually throughout lifespan
But childhood experiences are very important |
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Term
| How is Attachment Researched? (for Ainsworth) |
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Definition
Research Method: "The Strange Situation". This is were researchers would let the child play with its mother and a stranger would enter the room. The mother would then leave as well as the stranger. The mother would return, but then leave again. The stranger then would enter, but then leave. And finally the mother would return.
The Child's behavior when along or with caregiver and/or stranger was being observed and measured. |
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Term
| Ainsworth's Attachment Patterns |
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Definition
-Secure:Sensitive caregiver so child feels caregiver is comforting, safe base. Infant cries when caregiver leaves, plays when she returns
-Insecure/Avoidant:Rejecting caregiver so infant shows no preference for caregiver. Infant shows no reaction to caregiver leaving or returning,doesn’t play
-Insecure/Ambivalent:Inconsistent caregiver so infant is unsure of what to expect. Infant cries when caregiver leaves but not comforted when she returns
Insecure/Disorganized:Abusive caregiver. Infant is apprehensive, showing contradictory or stereotyped behavior |
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Term
| Long-Term Effects of Secure Attachment |
|
Definition
Secure attachments predict:
-Sociability and more positive -friendships (due to emotional maturity)
-Fewer clingy and dependent behaviors
Less aggression
-Likelihood to form secure attachments with own children
-Positive adult intimacy experiences
-Fewer short-term, casual relationships
-Less sexual dysfunction
-Higher self-esteem
But recall that attachment is adaptive across the lifespan! Also possible to form “earned secure” attachments
Poor working models are repaired when secure relationships are formed later in life |
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Term
| Recalling what inclusive fitness means: |
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Definition
Recall: inclusive fitness suggests that the parent-child relationship should be highly cooperative
Parents and offspring share more genes than any other relationship (except identical twins).Both gain the most fitness when the parent helps the child reach reproductive maturity
However most children (especially in the past) were not only children. Parents may believe (and want) to love all their children equally. But the evolutionary context of childhood involves sibling competition. i.e. particularly in cases of half-siblings and paternity uncertainty |
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Term
| EPMS for parents: Investing time and resources |
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Definition
Evolutionarily, it makes sense that parents would be sensitive to cues of children’s ability to make good use of resources i.e., convert parents’ investment of time and resources to classical fitness (Hrdy, 1999)
Most evidence of sibling competition is based in the study of reduced maternal investment
Evolutionary psychologists use current data about child abuse to suggest parents have EPMs related investing more in:
-Healthier children
-Older children
-Children when other mating opportunities are limited
-Children when parents’ relationship is stable |
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Term
| EPMS for children: Ensuring the Greatest investment |
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Definition
Evolutionarily, it makes sense that children would have EPMs related to gaining the greatest investment from parents i.e., in terms of classical fitness, siblings share only about 50% of their genes. But according to inclusive fitness that 50% should still ensure some cooperation
Pregnancy begins a series of changes in the mother’s body that reduces the amount of resources that she can contribute to an older sibling
e.g., greater need for family resources, reduced energy for childcare, reduced ability to produce milk.
Evidence suggests that sibling rivalry/resentment is particularly intense following the birth of a new sibling. Temporary effects include reduced attachment security, increased bad behavior, etc.
Some theorists argue that the extended period of dependence in human children can exacerbate the actual conflict/rivalry |
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Term
| Does Birth Order have an effect? |
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Definition
From an evolutionary standpoint, birth order effects make sense.Firstborns have little competition for resources prior to their siblings’ births.
Once families expand, children compete for niches in families.Only children never need to compete
Those who are the first born in a family usually follow traditional routes. They have high sconscientiousness, low openness, and low agreeableness.
Children that are born later usually follow alternative routes. Have high agreeableness (empathy) and high individualism (rebelliousness). |
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Term
| The Birth Order Controversy |
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Definition
Birth order effects were first postulated by Alfred Adler, a contemporary of Freud. Adler said that birth order was consistent with evolutionary theory, believed firstborns are “dethroned” when younger siblings are born and only children are spoiled and pampered.
however his theory was also inconsistent with evolutionary theory, because he believed younger children are also spoiled |
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Term
| Resource depletion theory |
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Definition
| suggests that firstborns should be more intelligent. This is because there is more adult influences in early years. Plus there is less competition for important resources during crucial development |
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Term
| Fraternal Birth Order Theory |
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Definition
| Suggests some evolutionary reasons for younger sons to have increased chance of being gay. This happens as a means to reduce probability of sons competing with each other. But perhaps confounded with cultural pressure on older sons to continue family lines |
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Term
| Big Five Personality Traits |
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Definition
| Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism |
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Term
| Openness (Big Five Personality Traits) |
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Definition
| Openness to new experiences, includes active imagination, aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, preference for variety, and intellectual curiosity. Firstborns are low, Laterborns are high. |
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Term
| Conscientiousness (big five personality traits) |
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Definition
| Includes efficiency, organization, neatness, self-discipline, carefulness, thoroughness, deliberation, need for achievement. Firstborns are high, laterborns are low. |
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Term
| Extraversion (big five personality traits) |
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Definition
| Tendency toward being outgoing, talkative, energetic as opposed to quiet or shy. Firstborns are low, laterborns are high. |
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Term
| Agreeableness (big five personality traits) |
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Definition
| Includes kindness, sympathy, cooperation, warmth, consideration, and social harmony. Firstborns are low, Laterborns are high. |
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Term
| Neuroticism (big five personality traits) |
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Definition
| Includes anxiety, moodiness, worry, envy, jealousy, anger, guilt, depressed mood as opposed to mental/emotional stability. Can range between firstborns and laterborns |
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Term
| Potential issues and critiques of the big five personality traits |
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Definition
-Inconsistent findings across the birth order literature
-Research has often confounded birth order, age, family spacing, and family size. Particularly problematic if making a resource argument.
-Harris (2000) has argued that birth-order effects are context-sensitive (dependent on the family) and do not generalize outside of the family
i.e., larger effect sizes when studied within families as opposed to across families |
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Term
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Definition
Alloparenting – the care for children by non-genetic kin. This likely played a large role in child-rearing throughout human history. Evidence from both tribal cultures and historical records.Could involve actual childcare or indirect assistance.e.g., exchange of gathered goods
Likely began following the introduction of solid foods and/or weaning. Consider the age of weaning was likely older in the past (3-4 years)
Consider the fact that the Freud/Erikson perspective of childcare within an individual family unit is unusual historically and cross-culturally
Is ancestral alloparenting very different from modern daycare? |
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Term
| Freud in the sibling context (anal stage) |
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Definition
Recall that Freud called this stage of development the Anal Stage. Argued that children experience libidinal pleasure in establishing control of themselves (their own bodies). Potty training is a crisis only because it forces parents and children into conflict over control of children’s bodies
Now consider the evolutionary perspective:Does it make sense for children to establish control in the time period in which it becomes increasingly likely that parents will be having next sibling? What does this stage suggest about potential difficulties and adaptations related to daycare/alloparenting? |
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Term
| Erikson in the sibling context (autonomy vs. shame and doubt) |
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Definition
Recall that Erikson called this stage of development the Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt. He argued that children experience new potential sources of competence as their ability to interact with and affect environment increases with toddlerhood. The potential for crisis only occurs because parents need to redefine limits:Provide enough freedom for children to establish independent sense of self. Set limits to protect children from their own (often impulsive) attempts to explore their environment and control their own destinies
Now consider the evolutionary perspective:Does it make sense for children to begin to push boundaries in the time period in which it becomes increasingly likely that parents will be having next sibling? What does this stage suggest about potential difficulties and adaptations related to daycare/alloparenting? |
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Term
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Definition
| Lateralization and development of the corpus callosum result in improvements in _______ and ______ |
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Term
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Definition
| __________ of the retiuclar formation and _____ results in improvements in attention, concentration, and long-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| So-called _________ result in massive increase in the number/size of synaptic connections and concomitant reorganization of the prefrontal cortex, which in turn results in additional improvements in attention and working memory |
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Term
| At 5 years of age what can a child do? |
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Definition
| Can jump 28-36 inches. Kick a rolling ball, ride a bike, and can trace. |
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Term
| At 4 years of age what can a child do? |
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Definition
| Can jump 24-33 inches. Can climb stairs, use jungle gyms, and copy letters. |
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Term
| At 3 years of age what can a child do? |
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Definition
| Can jump 15-24 inches. Can hop, jump, run, draw circles and crosses. |
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Term
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Definition
| Infant vision improves over the first few months of life. There are major developments in color vision, focus, and acuity. Babies probably don’t have 20/20 vision until age 2. Infants focus best at 8-12 inches away. |
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Term
| Vision and Environmental Exploration |
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Definition
Vision limits exploration within the environment. Tracking objects and face scanning do not become skilled until 6-10 weeks of age. Prefer curved lines, human faces (particular mom’s and attractive ones), hairlines, eyebrows, chins, eyes, contrasting colors. Experiments demonstrate that babies do not develop full depth perception skills until they begin moving around in the environment (around 8 months)
e.g., Gibson & Walk (1960) visual cliff experiments
But recall also the relationship to secure base and social referencing attachment behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
Overall, hearing is much better than vision. Children are born with ability to hear and respond to sound**. Locating sounds improves from 4 months to about 18 months. Children have more difficulty with high pitched sounds and this continues through adolescence
**Some evidence that babies can hear and respond to sound in the womb |
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Term
| Evidence for Prenatal Hearing |
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Definition
Evidence suggests that babies respond to sound (e.g., increased heart rate, changes in movement) in the womb
-By 25th week of pregnancy (second trimester), baby responds to sound
-By 32nd week of pregnancy (third trimester), baby identifies novel sounds
-Newborns show a preference for voices, songs, and stories they heard in the womb
-Laboratory experiments show that infants will adjust sucking patterns in order to hear familiar sounds
Is this learning?
Lafuente et al. (1997) demonstrated babies exposed to 70+ hours of classical music in utero were more advanced developmentally (motor and cognitive skills) at 6 months old. However, no consistent findings of long-term effects. While so-called "Mozart Effects" have been demonstrated with adults, there appears to be little utility for these effects. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Children younger than 2 years old normally need _____ to learn. They have difficulty learning from e.g., watching television or interacting with iPads. |
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Term
| Preparing to learn language |
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Definition
Babies can distinguish the sounds in ALL human languages by 1 month old.
Ability begins to disappear around 6 months.Early exposure to language may be important for fluency. Universally, babies show language preferences:
Mother’s voice over other women soon after birth. Familiar stories over new ones soon after birth. Native language over foreign language by 5 months |
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Term
| Baby talk also known as child-directed speech or motherese |
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Definition
Typical characteristics of baby talk:
-Higher pitch
-Rhythmic
-Repetitious
-Question and answer format
-Recasting
Babies prefer baby talk speech patterns. More quality and quantity are associated with positive outcomes
e.g., language/vocabulary development and increased readiness for preschool and kindergarten |
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Term
| What developmental Milestone is from Birth to 1 month? |
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Definition
| Baby is able to cry 4+ different types of cries. each signifying something different. |
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Term
| What developmental milestone is from 1-2 months? |
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Definition
| Cooing: squealing and gurglin |
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Term
| What developmental milestone is from 6-7 months? |
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Definition
| Babbling: mimicking sounds, vowels consonant combinations |
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Term
| What developmental milestone is from 8-12 months? |
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Definition
| Receptive language: words have meaning |
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Term
| What developmental milestone is from 12-18 months? |
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Definition
| Holophrases: single word + gesture to indicate phrase |
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Term
| What developmental milestone is from 18-24 months? |
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Definition
| Naming Explosion: 50 to 200 works in 6 months. Also, telegraphic speech: two-word phrases |
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Term
| Behaviorist Perspective on Language |
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Definition
| Babbling -> Accidental Words -> Reinforcement -> Language |
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Term
| Nativist (Evolutionary) Perspectives. |
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Definition
| Babies are born with specific brain modules and evolved psychological mechanisms designed to learn language (Language Acquisition Device). Also, resulting mechanisms include an innate grammar and a drive to pay attention to and learn language. |
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Term
| Interationist (Social and Cognitive) Perspectives |
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Definition
| Children learn language within social contexts. Cognitive abilities shape language development AND language shapes cognitive abilities. |
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Term
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Definition
Play is a term used in ethology and psychology to describe voluntary, intrinsically-motivated activities associated with the juvenile period of development
Play is evolutionarily “old”
Observed in most mammals and even some reptiles
Play is adaptive
Play requires a significant amount of resources (time and energy) during childhood. But play is also associated with cognitive and social development |
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Term
| Adaptive Benefits of Play |
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Definition
Across species, play prepares children for adult roles. e.g., wolf cubs play “predator-prey tag” games and young humans play at having a variety of adult jobs
Play offers experiences necessary for neurological development. e.g., Pellis (1997) demonstrated that rats who were denied the ability to play actually had neurological deficits
Play prepares children to explore and learn from unknown and novel experiences.Piaget argued that play supported the development of curiosity and exploration skills.
Play allowed children to act as “natural scientists” and develop crucial cognitive skills.
Play allows children to develop problem-solving skills and may even lead to cultural innovation. e.g., Kawai (1995) documented “potato washing” in Japanese macaque monkeys
Juvenile monkeys created a game that led to a new food source for the entire community |
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Term
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Definition
| It’s more about having fun with the the process than about getting to the end result |
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Term
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Definition
| Bigger, stronger, more skilled children (and adults!) will often act smaller, weaker, and less skilled so that everyone gets a chance to have fun |
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Term
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Definition
| Children need space to play, to make their own rules, and to define their own contexts without relying on adults to mediate |
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Term
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Definition
| This play begins in infancy. Involves exaggerated, repetitive movements. Adaptation to stimulate senses and improve early gross motor skills. E.g., rattles, chew toys, exersaucers, bouncers. |
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Term
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Definition
| This play begins around 2 years of age.Involves building and constructing. Adaptation to improve gross motor skills and develop early understanding of intuitive physics. E.g., blocks, legos, stacking, toys. |
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Term
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Definition
| This play begins in infancy. Includes simple repetition and imitation games. It is related to development of secure attachments. E.g., peekaboo. Adaptive for both motor development and social skills development |
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Term
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Definition
Meltzoff (1977) demonstrated imitation play begins as early as 12 days.
Recall your reading on object concept
Piaget argued that children did not begin to deferred imitation until 8-12 months old. |
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Term
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Definition
This play begins around 1 year and continues throughout preschool. In early peer play, children play informally (without rules).
Parten (1932) documented 3 play styles of early peer play. In later peer play, children play formally (with rules).Piaget (1932) categorized children’s understanding and adherence to rules.Recall – Piaget likely underestimated children |
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Term
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Definition
| Children play side-by-side with same set of toys/activities, with clear interest in each other, but with little actual interaction. Rarely observed after preschool except in videogaming |
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Term
| Associative (simple social play) |
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Definition
| Children play with same set of toys/activities, children recognize they are playing with peers and engage in conversation, but there is little group organization |
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Term
| True Cooperative (Organized supplementary play) |
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Definition
| Children play in complex, highly organized ways. Parten observed division of labor, group censorship, leadership, subordination of individual desire to group needs |
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Term
| Peer-Peer Play according to Piaget |
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Definition
Stage 1: Age <3, has no understanding of rules, and do not play according to rules.
Stage 2: Age 3 to 5, Believe rules come from higher authorities, break and change rules constantly
Stage 3: Ages 5 to 12, believe rules come from group and can be changed. They do not change rules; but adhere to them rigidly.
Stage 4: Age >12, children develop complete understanding of rules. They can only change rules through mutual consent. |
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Term
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Definition
Social play is adaptive. Things such as group entry skills, rules and morals, and typical adult roles are learned.
Development of cognitive skills such as fantasy and imagination. These are linked with object concept, symbolic function, schema development, and primitive reasoning.
Development of theory of mind. The ability to attribute mental states, beliefs, intents, desires, knowledge to oneself and to others. Understanding that others' minds differ from one's own |
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Term
| Play Aids cognitive skill devlepment |
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Definition
First Pretend Play:
Begins 1-2 years old
Children use toys/objects for typical purpose
Substitute Pretend Play:
Begins 2-3 years old
Using a toy/object for a new purpose
In Piaget’s terms, these early pretend skills require only assimilation
Sociodramatic Play:
Begins 3-5 years old
Role-playing games
e.g., play superheroes, firefighters, school, house. Often combines elements of social and fantasy play
Imaginary Friend Play may be a separate category or a subset of sociodramatic play. Generally studied separately due to controversial history (whether seen as normal or unhealthy)
Connect to theory:
In Piaget’s terms, these later pretend skills require accommodation
In Vygotsky’s framework, these later pretend skills allow children to continue practice with language and habits of mind in the social context even when that context is currently absent |
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Term
| Is imagination limited to humans? |
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Definition
Some researchers claim imagination is limited to human beings:They argue that imagination requires true theory of mind. Evidence: sociodramatic play and imaginary friends
Other researchers disagree: They argue that mammal species demonstrate weak theory of mind. Evidence: play reversals, wild and domesticated chimpanzees |
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Term
| Psychodynamic perspectives combined what two things? (gender) |
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Definition
Combined gender and personality development
New Idea: Personality is highly individualistic. Gender shares common, observable characteristics within a culture.
New Emphasis was put on exploring on gender development. And rely on observation (empiricism) to guide theory. Also used scientific research to test theory. |
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Term
| Recap: Psychodynamic Perspectives (gender) |
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Definition
A focus on the UNCONSCIOUS and PERSONALITY
Freud’s Phallic Stage:
-Identification with same-sex parent figure results in the development of the superego
-Child learns to compare self to moral and gender norms
Erikson’s Initiative vs. Guilt Stage:
-Child forms goals in the context of social activities (like play)
-Child learns social norms, including gender and rules
-Identification with norms leads to feelings of purpose and competence |
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Term
| The Two new Perspectives on Gender |
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Definition
A focus on SOCIAL environment:
-Operant conditioning. Rewards and punishments
-Observational learning. Modeling other’s behaviors
A focus on COGNITIVE understanding:
-Gender labels and concepts Identifying important characteristics of gender
-Gender identity. Applying understanding to self |
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Term
| Recap: Social Perspectives (gender) |
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Definition
Social perspectives focus on how we learn gender roles: A set of behaviors and attitudes we should do based on our sex. Emphasis is on observing and learning from the environment. Exposure to models and norms
Potential criticism: individuals can be (erroneously) pictured as somewhat passive learners
From this perspective, we DO gender |
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Term
| Recap: Cognitive Perspectives (gender) |
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Definition
Cognitive perspectives focus on how we learn gender concepts:A set of characteristics that help us organize our understandings of ourselves and others based on sex.Emphasis is on constructing a worldview that makes sense.
Learners are motivated to actively seek out and organize information
From this perspective, we ARE gender, or at least gender is a large part of the identities we construct for ourselves |
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Term
| What similarities do the social and cognitive perspectives have in regards to gender? |
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Definition
Place a lot of emphasis on learning and organizing information from our environment. Suggest that cultural gender stereotypes heavily influence our early understandings of gender
Both Perspectives rely on several key premises: children can distinguish sex, societies link sex to gender norms, gender is key to organizing characteristics of society, children need to learn about gender, and norms that indicate gender appropriate and gender inappropriate ways of acting and being. |
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Term
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Definition
Cognitive places more ______ on how we think about and organize those stereotypes in forming our identities. i.e. our beliefs, attitudes, and values may run counter to cultural norms.
Cognitive can also place more ____ on stage of understanding (maturation) rather than on a gradual and cumulative progression. |
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Term
| Evaluating premise: babies distinguish sex. |
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Definition
How do you research babies? - Habituation, preferential looking/listening, and high amplitude sucking.
During infancy babies distinguish male and female faces and voices. Babies initially prefer moms over other women and other women over fathers. Fathers over other men. |
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Term
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Definition
Seavy, Katz, & Zalk (1975)
Sample: 21 male and 21 female grad students (non-parents)
Stimulus: 3 mo old infant dressed in yellow
Toys: doll, football, plastic ring
Sidorowicz & Lunney (1980)
Sample: 35 male and 35 female undergrads
Stimulus: 2 male and 1 female infants approx. 6 mo old and dressed in white undershirts and diapers
Toys: doll, football, plastic ring
Findings:
Females touched/interacted more with infants than males. Including the gender-neutral babies. Adults picked gender- appropriate toys for the infants. Adults were troubled by the gender-neutral setting And chose a gender appropriate for the baby based on their interpretation of the baby’s behavior
Conclusions – babies environments reflect a lot of gender. But do they learn gender through parental socialization? Which is A social perspective
Or are they motivated to make sense of all these gender cues? which is A cognitive perspective |
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Term
| Kohlberg's Developmental Theory (social) |
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Definition
Children learn to organize their worlds by developing:Gender concepts which are ways of relating themselves to gender concepts (identities)
Development occurs in a series of stages as children gain cognitive skills and are able to engage in more complex thinking. We can predict children’s understanding of gender by knowing their age
Development of gender constancy makes gender significant to children
Norms, attitudes, behaviors, etc contribute to identity |
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Term
| Gender Constancy Stage 1 (Kohlberg's Developmental Theory) |
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Definition
Gender Identity (~9 months to 3 years)
Children can label themselves and others as “boys” or “girls”
Labeling is based on superficial characteristics. e.g., boys have short hair, girls wear dresses
Children do not view the label as permanent
Children may be inconsistent in how they apply the label. e.g., may believe that a boy with long hair has become a girl or that a girl in boy’s clothes has become a boy |
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Term
| Gender Constancy Stage 2 (Kohlberg's Developmental Theory) |
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Definition
Gender Stability (~3-4 years)
Children begin to understand sex (and consequently gender) are fixed. e.g., “I’m a little girl now, but I’m growing up. Soon I’ll be a teenager and then I’ll be a grownup lady.”
Children become more consistent in how they apply labels. i.e., they more consistently apply the rules they have identified
Children continue to rely primarily on appearance to label gender. Resulting in some mistakes in labeling and in some misunderstandings of whether other’s genders are stable |
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Term
| Gender Constancy Stage 3 (Kohlberg's Developmental Theory) |
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Definition
Gender Consistency (~5-7 years)
Children learn that gender is independent of superficial characteristics. e.g., a boy is still a boy even if he grows his hair long
Constancy allows gender identity to become much more sophisticated and fixed
Children become motivated to behave in ways consistent with their gender identities
Key point to remember: understanding gender requires the development of new cognitive skills that can be observed to happen as children get older
Kohlberg was hugely inspired by Piaget |
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Term
| Main Hypotheses of Kohlberg's Developmental Theory |
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Definition
As children develop through these stages, they will become more responsive to gender cues. Pay more attention to same-sex models. Increase modeling of same-sex models. Increase interest in same-sex friends,clothing, peer preferences. Increase knowledge of gender stereotypes
Potential problem: “pseudoconstancy”
Difficulty with exploring children’s understanding. 3-4 year olds get all the answers “right” but cannot explain their reasoning. Developmental findings can be inconsistent |
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Term
| Cognitive Perspectives: Gender Schema Theory (Martin & Halverson) |
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Definition
Gender schemas are organizational structures that include:Typical roles, behaviors, attitudes, emotions, and relationships
Individuals actively construct gender schemas. Pay attention to differences between genders. Needed to make sense of complex, ambiguous, overwhelming social environment
Individuals use schemas to understand themselves (form identity).Begin to build more detailed schemas to reflect same-sex characteristics and norms
Schemas are not necessarily accurate reflections of “real” gender differences. Considerable variance among cultures AND individuals
Potential problem: schemas are difficult to directly measure |
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Term
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Definition
Gender schema can also include scripts
Sequential or procedural information related to gender
We tend to remember information consistent with our gender schemas and scripts better
We distort memories to make them more consistent with our schemas and scripts
We tend to interpret new information in ways consistent with our schemas and scripts
All of which can result in increased use of and belief in gender stereotypes as well as creation and maintenance of gender-typical identities |
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Term
| Bem's Twist on Gender Schema Theory |
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Definition
Bem agreed with other cognitive theorists:Gender is an important organizing characteristic for our societies. Children make sense of gender by actively constructing schemas. Gender becomes an important part of how we construct our identities
But Bem disagreed with the assumptions:You pay more attention to same-sex schemas. You create your identity from the sex-appropriate gender schema |
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Term
| Traditional Gender Perspective |
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Definition
| Feminine -> Androgynous -> Masculine |
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Term
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Definition
Femininity and Masculinity run parallel to each other.
Bem believed:Individuals can choose to adopt characteristics associated with both masculinity and femininity i.e., your gender identity can be BOTH masculine and feminine |
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Term
| Gender schematic individuals |
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Definition
| see the world in terms of traditional male and female categories. Align with and are primarily influenced by one set of schemas. |
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Term
| Gender aschematic individuals |
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Definition
| See the world in "shades of gray" in terms of gender. They are influenced to a greater or lesser extent by both categories. |
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Term
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Definition
| Operative conditioning of gender-linked behavior from evaluative social reaction. e.g., Dad praises boy who wants to dress like a firefighter for Halloween or is uncomfortable around boy who wants to play with Mommy’s makeup |
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Term
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Definition
Social reaction from social, educational, and occupational contexts; parents; peers; mass media
e.g., boy sees another boy picked on for being a “momma’s boy”. e.g., girl sees another girl praised for how pretty she looks today |
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Term
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Definition
| Teaching which behaviors are appropriate and inappropriate. Can help generalize impact of modeling and enactive experience. |
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Term
| Sociocognitive Regulators of Gendered Role Behaviors. |
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Definition
Gender-linked social sanctions:
-Different than other forms of operant conditioning and modeling because most outcomes are socially prescribed rather than intrinsic to the action
-Serve as incentives and disincentives for action
-Convey information about norms to be incorporated into gender-linked conceptions and schemas
Regulatory self-sanctions:
-Individuals undergo a self-sanction process: Martin (1993) found boys monitor behavior more closely
Due to increased social sanctions or increased status?
-Leads to development of personal standards |
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Term
| Flow of regulatory self sanctions |
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Definition
| self observation (performance, dimensions, quality of monitoring) -> Judgmental Process (personal standards, referential performances, valuation of activity, and performance determinants) -> Self regulation (evaluative self-reactions, tangible self-reactions, and no self-reaction) |
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Term
| Bandura's Socio-Cognitive Theory: Triadic Reciprocal Causation (revisited) |
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Definition
Personal:
Gender-linked conceptions (schema)
Personal Standards
Self-monitoring and regulation
Behavior:
Gender-linked activity patterns
Gender roles
Environmental:
Social sanctions
Operant conditioning
Modeling
Note: no fixed pattern of influence |
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Term
| Social Perspective: Social Role Theory |
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Definition
Children learn gender roles
Roles are based on traditional (e.g., ancestral or evolutionary) division of labor in society and reflected in social norms
Men have an agentic role
They primarily work outside the home
Qualities: focus on self and autonomy, assertiveness, competitiveness
Women have a communal role
They are primarily responsible for work inside the home
Qualities: focus on well-being of others and relationships, empathy, nurturing
As the division of labor changes, so should gender roles |
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Term
| Evidence for Social Role Theory |
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Definition
The idea that gender is socially learned is supported by evidence that:
-Boys and girls are rewarded for different behaviors e.g., boys are more likely to be rewarded for displays of aggression
-Boys and girls are punished for different behaviors And boys are more likely to be punished for gender atypical behavior
-Adults act as role models and also indicate what is appropriate for children through their actions
-Both same sex and opposite sex models influence children
-Children observe gender differences in labor and norms in their homes
-Exposure to media greatly expands the models to which children are exposed
Thus social learning begins VERY young and continues throughout our lives |
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Term
| Social Perspective: Role of the Media |
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Definition
Media sets the norm and provides a source of gender stereotypes
Media tends toward surprisingly gendered and stereotyped portrayals
e.g. men as the powerful and active gender, women as the submissive and passive gender
Bottom line – many studies show the media influences us
Not surprising – it’s designed to be persuasive
Tends to have largest influence on our (not always conscious) beliefs and attitudes |
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Term
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Definition
| Why don’t we question the media (more)? Synthesized realism – convincing (and deceiving) mix of reality and fiction Makes it hard for viewer to determine what is real, partly real (or based in reality) and totally made up |
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Term
| Media tends to focus on differences |
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Definition
Media portrayals are getting more realistic
Researchers have found positive shifts in the ways some men and women are portrayed
But the media tends to emphasize differences between men and women rather than similarities
Reinforces belief that men and women are opposites
Consider how this impacts gender bias:
If men are powerful, women must be…
If women are nurturing, men must be… |
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Term
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Definition
Children are particularly vulnerable to the effects of the media. Watch a LOT of TV Analysis of Nielsen ratings in 2009/2010 suggests TV watching is going up. 32 hours per week for children 2-5, 28 hours per week for 6-11. Tend to pay more attention to the commercials than adults. Lack cognitive skills to critically evaluate what they see
Children are exposed to gender stereotypes about adults
Children are also exposed to gender stereotypes about children:
Boys are powerful, smart, ambitious, active, VIOLENT
Few alternative portrayals
Girls are caring, warm, sensitive, dependent
Some alternative portrayals of girls as smart or athletic
By early childhood:
Recall Kohlberg, children believe gender is stable and governed by particular rules that can be observed
Recall Piaget, children believe rules, including rules of gender, are inviolate. Recall Bandura, the media serves as a source of models and norms for gender
So that children’s gender labels are based on observations of:
Physical characteristics
e.g., men have big muscles, women wear dresses
Adult behaviors
e.g., dad works in the yard and mom does the cooking
Toys preferences
e.g., boys play with action figures, girls play with dolls |
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