Term
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Definition
| Skill acquisition can be shown in a curve represented by this mathematical equation T = aP-b T is the time taken to perform a task, and P is the amount of practice. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mistakes made by trained persons and are more likely to be based on th selection of the wrong “sub-routine” rather than on errors of sequencing and/or timing as likely to be committed by the learner. |
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Term
| Phase theory of skill acquisition (Cognitive) |
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Definition
| Where in a typical instruction session a way of carrying out a task is provided for the learner. |
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Term
| Phase theory of skill acquisition (Associative) |
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Definition
| During this stage of learning the correct patterns of activity are practiced until they are error-free and have appropriate timing characteristics |
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Term
| Phase theory of skill acquisition (Autonomous) |
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Definition
| Activity at this stage of learning has been variously described as “automatic”, “unconscious” or “instinctive” |
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Term
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Definition
| Is deemed to take place as the task is practiced. As a result of practice, the declarative knowledge is “compiled” into procedural knowledge and is thus stored in a different form. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to deciding on the general approach to a problem, as represented by initial choice of weak-method production for example. |
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Term
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Definition
| This idea has been developed in empirical studies of expert (grand masters) chess players, who have remarkable abilities to recognize significant configurations of chess pieces. |
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Term
| GOMS (Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection) |
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Definition
| This was developed primarily to describe the processes of human-computer interaction, and does so in terms o a hierarchy of goals, and a description of the broad methods by which each goal and subgoal may be achieved. This was developed as a means for task analysis in applied settings and it has been widely used in the development of displays and human-machine interfaces. |
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Term
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Definition
| Was held to be stored sets of motor instructions, capable of being triggered by a decision and then being used to initiate and execute a movement in open-loop fashion without conscious control |
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Term
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Definition
| Movement is controlled by a proprioceptive feedback loops that send signals from the muscles through afferent neurons to the spinal cord or motor centers of the brain. In some patients these afferents are destroyed. |
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Term
| Central pattern generators |
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Definition
| Electrical stimulation of motor centers may elicit complex naturalistic movements such as walking |
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Term
| Invariant relative timing |
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Definition
| The sequencing and phasing of the subcomponents of an action should be constant, and the proportion of total duration of the action occupied by each subcomponent should remain the same, irrespective of how quickly or slowly the action is executed. |
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Term
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Definition
| Is a model of how movement outcome depends jointly on (a) local parameters of the generalized motor program, such as force, and (b) initial environmental conditions, such as the weight of a manipulated object and the person’s own body position. Controls the motor program used for rapid, largely open-loop movements |
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Term
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Definition
| Describes how movement outcome depends jointly on initial conditions together with the sensory consequences of the movement, e.g. how it looks and feels to perform an action in a given context |
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Term
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Definition
| Can be defined as “the execution by a machine agent (usually a computer) of a function that was previously carried out by a human |
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Term
| “Out of the Loop Performance Problem” |
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Definition
| Automation therefore increases the “psychological distance” between the operator and system events, because the level of interaction and the degree of familiarity with the state of the system are reduced. The operator is pushed out of the inner loop directly connecting him or her to the system through the display-control loop into an outer loop where then connection between the operator and the system is mediated by a computer thereby creating what has been described as this. |
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Term
| “situation awareness” (3 levels) |
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Definition
Defined as “the perception of the elements in the environment within a volume of time and space, the comprehension of the meaning, and the projection of their status in the future”.
Level 1: The operators attention to and perception of current situation events
Level 2: The operator’s integration of information concerning the current process state into an overall understanding of the current situation and its relation to system goals
Level 3: The operator’s extrapolation of information |
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Term
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Definition
| Operators did not do what they intended to do,, either due to a failure of response execution |
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Term
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Definition
| Operators did not do what they intended to do, due to a failure of memory |
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Term
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Definition
| Errors can also result from a discrepancy between the plan that should have been formulated to achieve the desired task outcome of system goal and the plan that was actually formulated; the operator made an error of planning or judgment |
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Term
| Rasmussen’s distinction between skill, rule, and knowledge based behavior |
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Definition
Skill based behavior: Sensory motor performance guided by an intention which proceeds smoothly and in a highly integrated fashion while being minimally under the control of conscious attention
Rule based behavior: Is guided by rules and procedures that are either stored in memory or made available through explicit instructions or protocols
Knowledge based behavior: Based on the operator’s knowing of how the system works and of its current state and on the decisions made in the light of this knowing. |
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Term
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Definition
| Represent a willful and therefore intended, departure from those practices deemed necessary to preserve system safety and the safety of others using the system, such as in the driving context other road users. |
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Term
| Centralist Psychological Theory of Stress |
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Definition
| Is to suppose that both types of reaction are expressions of central brain systems |
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Term
| Peripheralist Psychological Theory of Stress |
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Definition
| William James proposed that the immediate consequence of emotionally significant stimulation is to initiate somatic and muscular responses. |
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Term
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Definition
| Stress reactions depend on the person’s appraisals o environmental demands, and of their own competence in mental demands, and of their own competence in coping with those demands. A stressor is only stressful to the individual if it is appraised as likely to tax or exceed the person’s coping skills |
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Term
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Definition
| (1) The relationship between arousal level and performance may be expressed as an inverted U curve. (2) The optimal level of arousal for performance is inversely related to task difficulty |
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Term
Productions
Tuning
Generalization
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Definition
The analogy here is with high level of computer language where the code of the language is translated into the machine code of a particular computer. This different form of knowledge representation then supports skilled performance though the use of productions.
Procedural knowledge can only be instantiated as performance of the task and requires the learner to have possession of the appropriate declarative knowledge and to have had the necessary amount of practice. Possession of procedural knowledge is equivalent, for all or part of a skill, to Fitts’ phase of automation. The process of compilation is probably equivalent to Fitts’ associative stage. Anderson elaborates on the effects of practice on procedural knowledge: a process of tuning allows for the generalization of procedures to other contexts, their restriction of application to certain situations only through discrimination and their strengthening whereby less successful procedures are eliminated at the expense of more successful ones. |
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