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| Any physical substance which occupies space, has mass, and can be perceived by one or more senses; composed of atoms of various chemical elements; the physical state of matter depends on its temperature (and the pressure exerted upon it; the common states for matter are solid, liquid, or gas. |
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| Liquids have _______ Bonds |
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| Plasmas have ________ Bonds |
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| The capacity for performing work. Chemical energy is derived from the ability of atoms and molecules to participate in the making or breaking of chemical bonds. Other forms of energy include mechanical, electromagnetic, and nuclear energy. This capacity for work may be stored for future use (potential energy) or it may be in use as some form of motion (kinetic energy) |
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| The stored energy of a body (something made of matter: a molecule, a cell, an organ, a organism, etc.) or system, i.e., energy which is not kinetic, i.e., energy due to configuration; examples of potential energy include energy stored in a bent spring, or a body suspended a given distance above the earth and acted on by gravity. |
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| The active energy of a body (something made of matter: a molecule, a cell, an organ, a organism, etc.), i.e., the energy it has as a result of being in motion; i.e., energy which is not potential; examples of kinetic energy include moving bodies, heat transference, electric currents, membrane transport, endocytosis, exocytosis, blood circulation, etc |
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| A substance composed of atoms having an identical number of protons in each nucleus and an equal number of electrons in its outer shells. Elements cannot be reduced to simpler substances by normal chemical means. Each element has its own unique chemical properties. Elements are organized in the Periodic Table by their atomic numbers. |
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| A unit of matter, the smallest unit of an element, having all the characteristics of that element and consisting of a dense, central, positively charged nucleus surrounded by a system of electrons. The entire structure characteristically remains undivided in chemical reactions except for limited removal, transfer, or exchange of certain electrons |
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| The dense central core of an atom which contains the protons and neutrons. |
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| A stable sub-atomic particle with a negative charge and very little mass. Electrons are located in orbitals or electron shells at some distance from the nucleus of their respective atoms. A flow of electrical current consists of the movement of many electrons. Atoms of a given element contain the same number of protons as electrons. It is the relationships between electrons of different atoms which create chemical bonds |
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| A stable sub-atomic particle with a positive charge and considerable mass. Protons are located in the nucleus of their respective atoms along with neutrons. Atoms of a given element contain the same number of protons as electrons |
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| A stable sub-atomic particle with a neutral charge and considerable mass. Neutrons are located in the nucleus of their respective atoms along with protons. Atoms of a given element contain a variable number of neutrons (isotopes), generally equal to or nearly the same as the number of protons or electrons. |
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| The number which identifies a particular element by giving the number of protons, e.g., carbon has 6 protons and the atomic number 6; the elements are arranged by atomic number in the Periodic Table |
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| The quantity of matter which a body contains, irrespective of its bulk or volume. (A property of matter equal to the measure of an object's resistance to changes in either the speed or direction of its motion. The mass of an object is not dependent on gravity and therefore is different from but proportional to its weight.) The amount of mass in a material is equivalent to the sum of all the subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) in the material. |
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| The number which identifies a particular isotope of any element by giving the sum of number of protons and neutrons, e.g., carbon 14 = 14C contains 6 protons and eight neutrons. |
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| One of two or more atoms with the same atomic number but with different numbers of neutrons, e.g., carbon 12 = 12C and carbon 14 = 14C. |
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| Certain isotopes are unstable and transform (decay) into different isotopes losing protons or neutrons and are termed radioactive |
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| The wave function of an electron in an atom or molecule, indicating the electron's probable location at a distance from the atomic nucleus; the outer shell or orbital of a given element contains a characteristic number of electrons and the number of those electrons determines how this atom will bond with other atoms |
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| The combining capacity of an atom or radical determined by the number of electrons that it will lose, add, or share when it reacts with other atoms; represented by positive or negative integers, e.g., 1+, 2+, 1-, etc |
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| List three particles which combine to form the atom |
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| (positively charged) protons and (uncharged) neutrons (in the nucleus) and (negatively charged) electrons (in orbitals around the nucleus) |
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| A substance formed by the chemical combination (chemical bonding, usually covalent or ionic bonding) of two or more atoms (of the same or different elements); the smallest particle of a chemical compound that retains the chemical properties of the compound. [A stable molecule occurs when the total energy of the combination has a lower energy state than the separated atoms. |
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| A substance formed by the chemical combination (chemical bonding, usually covalent or ionic bonding) of two or more atoms of different elements. [A stable compound occurs when the total energy of the combination has a lower energy state than the separated atoms.] |
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| Any example of the large series of molecules which do not contain carbon atoms (other than a few exceptions such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and carbides); biologically important examples of inorganic compounds include water, acids, bases, salts, and electrolytes |
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| Any example of the large series of biological molecules which always contain carbon, almost always contain both hydrogen and oxygen, and sometimes contain other elements such as nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus; biologically important examples of organic compounds include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. |
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| The usable power (energy*) liberated by a chemical reaction when chemical bonds are broken or the usable power (energy*) absorbed in the formation of a chemical compound when new chemical bonds are made. See also chemical energy in the universe. [*Energy is the capacity to do work within a given system.] |
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| Any of the several forces or mechanisms, primarily relationships between electrons, by which atoms or ions are bound in a molecule or crystal; examples include the covalent bond, ionic bond, hydrogen bond, hydrophobic bond = van der Waals attraction and metallic* bond. (*The chemical bond characteristic of metals, in which mobile valence electrons are shared among atoms in a usually stable crystalline structure). [A stable compound occurs when the total energy of the combination has a lower energy state than the separated atoms.] |
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| A strong attraction between atoms because they are sharing one or more outer shell valence electrons; much chemical energy is required to create this sharing and much energy will be released if it is broken; it is the strongest of the four types of chemical bonds. |
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Definition
One of two types of covalent bonds, a polar covalent bond is one in which the sharing of the electron pair is unequal, with the electrons spending more time around the more nonmetallic (electronegative) atom; in such a bond relationship there is a charge separation with one atom being slightly more positive and the other more negative; a classic example of polar covalent bonds are found in the bonds of the water molecule in which the oxygen atom is more electronegative than the hydrogens; compounds with many polar covalent bonds are soluble in water and so are referred to as "hydrophilic" compounds
[image] |
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| nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the sharing of the electron pair is equal, with the electrons spending equale time around both atoms forming the bond, since neither atom is particularly more electronegative than the other; in such a bond relationship there is no charge separation with both atoms being similar, i.e., charge neutral, with respect to each other; a classic example of nonpolar covalent bonds are found in the bonds of fatty acids in which the carbons and hydrogens forming the bonds are sharing their bond electrons equally; compounds with many nonpolar covalent bonds may not be very soluble in water and so are referred to as "hydrophobic" compounds |
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| Covalent vs Ionic Bond Image |
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| A variable strength attraction between atoms in which one or more outer shell valence electrons from one atom are removed and attached to another atom, resulting in positive and negative ions which attract each other; chemical energy is required to achieve this transfer and energy will be released if it is reversed; it is the second strongest of the four types of chemical bonds. |
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| A substance which carries an electrochemical charge because its structure has unequal numbers of electrons and protons due to the creation of ionic bonds between two or more atoms in the molecule |
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| An ion or group of ions having a positive charge and, characteristically, attracting and having the potential to make ionic bonds with negatively charged anions; such positively charged ions move toward the negative electrode in electrolysis and electrophoresis. |
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| An ion or group of ions having a negative charge and, characteristically, attracting and having the potential to make ionic bonds with positively charged cations; such negatively charged ions move toward the positive electrode in electrolysis and electrophoresis. |
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| A weak (only ~5% of the strength of a covalent bond) electrostatic attraction (positive to negative) between atoms in which a hydrogen atom of one polar molecule (most often a water molecule) is attracted to an electronegative atom, especially a nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine atom, usually of another* polar molecule of the same or a different polar substance. [*Note: Large molecules may have hydrogen bonds between atoms within the same molecule.] |
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| van der Waals attraction = hydrophobic bond |
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| The weakest of chemical bonds, the interactions between molecules due to electromagnetic vibrations which cause interactions between electron clouds; such attractions may be attractive or repulsive, depending on vibrational frequencies; for molecules which are formed with many nonpolar covalent bonds, such as lipids (fats, oils, waxes, etc.); these electromagnetic attractions, while individually weak, can produce cumulative forces which can hold similar molecular types together, such as holding drops of oil together when shaken with water, or keeping the components of cell membrane material in the lipid bilayer configuration. |
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| list the 4 types of bonds from strongest to weakest |
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Definition
covalent
ionic
hydrogen
Van Der Waals Attraction (hydrophobic) |
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Definition
| electrons are shared between the atoms forming the bond |
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| electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another of the atoms forming the bond |
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| oppositely charged (+ or -) regions of molecules composed (mostly) of polar covalent bonds are attracted to each other |
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van der Waals attraction
(hydrophobic bond) |
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Definition
| neutrally charged regions of molecules compolsed (mostly) of nonpolar covalent bonds are attracted to each other |
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| List the four categories of organic compounds which are macromolecules |
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Definition
carbohydrate = polysaccharide
Lipid
Protien
Nucleic Acid |
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| Monomers used in carbohydrate = polysaccharide |
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Definition
| simple sugars = monosaccharides |
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| fatty acids + glycerol + certain other polar molecules (sometimes) |
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| Monomers used in proteins |
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| Monomers used in nucleic acids |
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| pentose sugars + nitrogenous bases + phosphate ions |
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| List 3 examples of carbohydrate = polysaccharide |
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| plant starch, animal starch = glycogen, cellulose, chitin |
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| list 3 examples of lipids |
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| neutral fats = di- and triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids, steroid hormones, prostaglandins |
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| list 3 examples of protein |
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Definition
| collagen, keratin, actin, myosin, histone proteins, enzymes, elastin, hemoglobin, fibrin, albumin, blood globulins, etc. |
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| list 3 examples of nucleic acid |
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| deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
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| three chemical elements found in carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids |
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Definition
| carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) |
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| a chemical elements found in proteins, and nucleic acids but not in carbohydrates and lipids |
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Definition
in proteins: sulfur (S)
in nucleic acids: phosphorus (P)
in both proteins and nucleic acids: nitrogen (N) |
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Definition
| The process in which one or more substances (elements, ions, or molecules), the "reactants," are changed into others, the "products;" there is no change in mass nor in the number of atoms of specific elements, but the arrangements of the atoms, controlled by chemical bonds, are changed; there are also always changes in the energy states of some or all of the participants and some chemical energy is lost to the environment as waste heat, i.e., the energy transformations are not 100% efficient |
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| Any anabolic chemical reaction in which two of the atoms in the smaller reactant molecules ("building blocks," subunits, monomers) form new covalent bonds by the donation of a hydrogen atom (-H) from one reactant and a hydroxyl group (-OH) from another reactant to form a water molecule (H-O-H = H2O) while the remainders of the two reactants form a single covalent bond where the -H and -OH were removed, thus producing a larger molecule or polymer; such reactions are endergonic, i.e., they require a considerable input of chemical energy. [Note: It is the reverse of a hydrolysis reaction.] |
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| Any catabolic chemical reaction in which the reactant, a larger molecule, is separated into two or more smaller molecules or atoms, the products, which had been joined to each other by chemical bonds; such reactions are exergonic, i.e., they yield an output of chemical energy. [Note: It is the reverse of a synthesis reaction.] |
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| Any anabolic chemical reaction in which the reactants, two or more smaller atoms or molecules, the reactants, are combined into a larger molecule, the product, the reactants have been joined to each other by chemical bonds; such reactions are endergonic, i.e., they require a significant input of chemical energy. [Note: It is the reverse of a decomposition reaction.] |
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| Any catabolic chemical reaction in which the single covalent bond between two of the atoms in a larger molecule or polymer is broken, while at the same time a water molecule (H-O-H = H2O) is broken into its constituent hydrogen atom (-H) and hydroxyl group (-OH), and two new bonds are formed: (1) in which the hydroxyl group (-OH) is added, forming a new single covalent bond, to one of the smaller breakdown products (subunits, monomers) while (2) the hydrogen atom (-H) is added, forming the second single covalent bond, to the other of the smaller breakdown products (subunits, monomers); such reactions are exergonic, i.e., they yield a modest output of chemical energy, primarily in the form of waste heat. [Note: It is the reverse of a dehydration reaction. |
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Definition
| Any chemical reaction in which the atoms in an element lose electrons and the valence of the element is correspondingly increased; the products of such reactions tend to have less potential chemical energy; often, but not always, the loss of electrons is caused by the addition of an oxygen atom to the molecule; they always occur coupled to reduction reactions. |
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| Any chemical reaction in which one or more hydrogens is combined with a compound or in which one or more oxygens is removed from a compound; is such reactions, there is a decrease in the positive valence or an increase in negative valence by the gaining of electrons; the products of such reactions tend to have more potential chemical energy; they always occur coupled to oxidation reactions |
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| The minimum input of energy which a system must acquire from some outside source before a chemical reaction will occur. [Note: in the figure below, adding activation energy to AB and CD weakens the bonds between A and B and between C and D, so that eventually those bonds break, and new bonds can form, yielding the products AC and BD.] |
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The adjective used to describe those (usually catabolic) chemical reactions in which the potential chemical energy ("free energy") of the products is less than the potential chemical energy ("free energy") of the reactants and the rest of the energy has been released from the reaction as some form of kinetic energy, always including the release of some waste heat.
Reactant(s) ↔ Products(s) + energy + waste heat |
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Definition
The adjective used to describe those (anabolic) chemical reactions in which the potential chemical energy ("free energy") of the products is greater than the potential chemical energy ("free energy") of the reactants and, therefore, energy has to be provided to the reaction as some form of kinetic energy input in order for the reaction to occur. [Note: because all chemical reactions are less than 100% efficient, the reaction will also include the release of some waste heat.]
Reactant(s) + energy ↔ Products(s) + waste heat |
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Definition
| A substance which dissolves in water to release H+ ions, and some corresponding negative ion(s); a proton donor in chemical reactions. |
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| A mixture, a solution, of water and various chemicals, some of which are able to release hydrogen ions (H+) into the mixture/solution, such that the pH of the solution is less than 7; such solutions have a great concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxyl ions (OH-). |
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Definition
| A substance which dissolves in water to release OH- ions, and some corresponding positive ion(s); a proton acceptor in chemical reactions |
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| Basic = Alkaline Solution |
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Definition
| A mixture, a solution, of water and various chemicals, some of which are able to release hydroxyl ions (OH-) into the mixture/solution, such that the pH of the solution is greater than 7; such solutions have a great concentration of hydroxyl ions (OH-) than hydrogen ions (H+). |
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| pH is a mathematical expression indicating how acidic or alkaline a water-based solution is. The pH scale extends from 0 (most acid) to 14 (most basic = alkaline). The pH of a solution is the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration |
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| A chemical or mixture of chemicals, usually a weak acid or base and its corresponding salt, which minimizes change in the acidity of a solution, the pH, when an acid or base is added to the solution. |
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| The product of any reaction in which an acid and a base combine to yield water and various ions or electrolytes; these compounds usually crystallize when dry. |
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| Any homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which the various solutes are dissolved in the solvent in such a way that each individual atom or molecule of the solute is independently dissolved in the solvent substance; such a mixture may be in any physical phase, solid, liquid, or gas. |
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Definition
| Any substance in which another substance may be dissolved, forming a solution, a colloid, or a suspension; generally, the proportion of the solvent exceeds the proportion(s) of the solute(s); two broad classes are recognized: (1) those, such as water, which have polar covalent bonds and readily dissolve other substances which are charged or partially charged, and (2) those, such as oils, which have nonpolar covalent bonds and readily dissolve other uncharged substances; such a substance may be in any physical phase, solid, liquid, or gas, but typically they are liquids. |
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| Any substance dissolved in another substance, usually the component(s) of a solution present in the lesser amount(s); the dissolved substance(s) in a solution; the component of a solution may change its state, e.g., the gas, oxygen, or the solid, sodium chloride, will change phase when it enters the liquid state when it is dissolved in water. [Note: the degree to which a solvent dissolves a given solute is termed the solubility of that solute in that solvent.] |
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Definition
| Any compound, e.g., water (H2O) or liquid ammonia (NH3), which contains some (or all) polar covalent bonds, such that the molecule contains two or more regions which carry partial electrical charges, and, as a result, is capable of dissolving other charged or partially charged ("polar") materials such as other molecules with polar covalent bonds or charged ions. [Note: polar solvents are attracted to their solute particles by hydrogen bonds.] [The figure below illustrates hydrogen bonding among water molecules.] |
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Definition
| Any compound, e.g., gasoline or benzene, which contains primarily non-polar covalent bonds, such that the molecule is neutral or uncharged (contains no regions which carry partial electrical charges), and, as a result, is capable of dissolving other uncharged ("nonpolar") materials such as other molecules with nonpolar covalent bonds, e.g., lipids. [Note: nonpolar solvents are attracted to their solute particles by hydrophobic bonds = van der Wals attractions.] |
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| Colloid = Coloidal solution |
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Definition
| A system (a mixture of chemicals) in which microscopically visible bouyant particles are dispersed (as opposed to dissolved as individual molecules) throughout a less dense liquid or gas from which they are easily filtered but not easily settled out of solution by gravity, often not settling out of the solution by force of gravity at all, because of system viscocity or molecular interactions. [Note: examples include milk and blood plasma.] |
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Definition
| A system (a mixture of chemicals) in which microscopically/macroscopically visible particles (which are approximately 10 to 10,000 angstroms in size) with sufficient mass not to be bouyant, are dispersed (as opposed to dissolved as individual molecules) throughout a less dense liquid or gas; such particles may be filtered (with the appropriate small pore size filter) and can easily be settled out of solution by gravity if left undisturbed for a sufficient period of time. [Note: examples include whole blood, where red and white blood cells and platelets/trhombocytes settle out, and smoke, where soot particles will settle out, over time.] |
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