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| Tay Bridge collapsed in Scotland in 1879, lost 80 passengers in a train, Ashtabula Bridge in Ohio collapsed in 1876 – rail line president insisted on using a specific truss out of metal, but was designed to be made out of wood and lost 83 passengers, Locomotive boiler explosion in 1850, Minneapolis mill explosion in 1878 |
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Howe truss bridges patented in 1840, incorporated science in engineering, had a detailed structural analysis, often used as covered bridges
Thomas Telford’s Menai Straits Bridge in 1826 – suspension bridges, first used early in China, first practical one built by James Finley, tubular bridge like Stephenson’s Britannia Bridge
Eads Bridge in St. Louis 1874, used a chromium steel alloy, Caissons needed on bedrock to build bridge
John Roebling made Niagra Railroad Suspension Bridge in 1855, Brooklyn Bridge in 1883, John designed and Washington built, both were educated at Polytechnic school and admired gothic architecture |
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| Homestead plant in 1881 was a huge open-hearth plant, continuously working, workers eventually rebelled against 12 hour days seven days a week, the labor was hot and dirty, became a bloody strike involving third party men and the government, set a bad example for 20th century relations |
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| US versus Europe in steel |
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| Carnegie used scientists, but Europe was more extensive. Germany had stronger ties to government and better worker relations, and scientific research had been going on through the 1800s, a lot of it was university funded |
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| Started using steel to build buildings higher, buildings included elevators and made possible by steel, was used as a part of the structure and allowed them to build higher without the compressive forces bearing down |
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George-Louis Le Sage: 1774, invented first telecommunications device
Samuel F. B. Morse: 1791-1872, Renaissance man and painter, idea came to him 1832, and patented in 1837, first successful Morse line constructed between Washington and Baltimore by Cornell, demonstrated in 1824, other people laid claim to creation – Joseph Henry, he had been working with the idea of an electrical telegraph, Morse devised a code for translating signals |
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| the science that came into the process, it was a communication device built around electricity and magnetism – led to a greater understanding of these, there was a relationship between telegraph and railroads, which was good for society and business, trains could set up and maintain telegraph lines, and telegraph lines helped with the rail industry, transatlantic cable created a larger network |
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Camera Obscura 17th century Italian device, light shone through and an object’s reflection was shown.
First successful photograph by Niepce, 1826, used natural asphalt, Louis Daguerre was his partner who used silver copper plats and iodine, discovered that mercury vapor would settle on exposed parts of a plate, used a saline solution to fix the image, dropped exposure time from 8 hours to 30 minutes, picture quality greatly increased – Daguerreotype camera 1839
First Photo negative image in 1835 by Henry William Fox Talbot
Glass plate, solution had to be applied immediately before photograph and photo developed immediately. In 1878, gelatin coating with silver salts used for pre-preparation |
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Eastman created paper photography with specialized machinery to create paper. Gelatin papers drew in more amateurs into photography, started offering services, and then developed roll film. It was his alternative to glass plates. He created a complete set of products, processes, and machinery which he patented, and began to control the photographic market
Kodak camera in 1888, meant to circumvent the market of professional photography. Everyone could take pictures. It was a new popular detective camera, made them smaller cheaper and the whole package, camera was sent back and pictures were developed by Eastman |
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| Chemistry very close to photography, science as a basis with chemistry optics, recording of events with pictures, captured memories, things become recorded – scenes in Civil War |
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| Zoetrope in 1834, 1870s flash cards, Edweard Muybridge first did motion studies with 12-24 camera to take horse pictures, Marey develops camera in 1881 that takes many pictures in a short period of time and does animal locomotion studies |
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| Thomas Edison contributions |
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| developed phonography in 1877, Kinetoscope in 1888 with William Dickson, phonograph controlled cylinder with a series of photographs on it which could be viewed with a magnifying glass, put into many buildings, bought film from Eastman, didn’t protect his patent and Auguste and Louis Lumiere created the Cinematographe in 1895 |
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| Sound and motion pictures |
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| Took synchronization, used idea of the kinetoscope and brought in radio technology to encode sound onto the film, showed that sound could be reduced to electric signals and then encoding it, introduction of vacuum tubes allowed sound to be amplified. Talking films were resisted at first, early silent films used music from an orchestra and appeared like a modern theatre, orchestras were unionized and feared losing their job to films with sound, production was costly and risky. Solution occurred in 1925 with bell labs, and in 1927 The Jazz Singer became success |
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| Not created to fill any recognized need, met a demand for popular entertainment in growing urban markets, early focus was on the movie rather than the story, marketing movies was done with Broadway faces, there was the rise of the big five studios: Fox, MGM, Paramount, RKO, and Warner Brothers, and movies spread American popular culture. |
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| Used to hand-tint film, Technicolor corporation in 1914 produced color film in 1930s with three strip process where colors were laid over the film. The patent prevented the spread of it until the 1950s. |
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| Industrial research lab origins |
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Based on team research, first lab was General Electric in 1901; there were German chemical labs in the 1880s, but contained only chemists rather than multiple disciplines. The work was patent-driven.
Edison’s Menlo Park Research Labs, 1880, worked up to 70 projects at once
Transition to the modern industrial research lab came out of the invention group
More organized research approach attempts made by Alexander Lyman Holley, wide-ranging research effort to perfect a particular technology – Bessemer process - but his group failed to become permanent.
Elihu Thomson and Charles Brush, 1928, 50th anniversary of electric dynamo, his research lab was meant to break other people’s patents, wasn’t an invention department, was an able inventor and electrical engineer, realized he needed partners to control the business while he continued to research things like electrical transformers, eventually drove Brush out of business, similar tactics took over Edison’s laboratory |
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Alexander Graham Bell patented telephone in 1876, maintained a small personal lab, after patent, he founded the bell telephone company in 1877, chose to avoid the business end and stuck to the lab, did a lot of basic research with other branch Boston bell, worked on perfecting and developing the telephone, more was done later at Western Electric, which became the manufacturing arm, patents would expire in the 1880s so they needed to protect their telephone monopoly, looked to restore it on local and long distance, 1895 Boston bell mechanical department was converted into an informal industrial research lab, worked on scientific and defensive research to rebuild telephone monopoly
Other companies were producing and providing telephone service, but Bell had a large chunk of it , tried to absorb telegraphs, became a corporation in 1925 New York, not broken up until the late 20th century, government took over control |
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| Beneficial relationships between universities and companies, which Britain did not have – lack of research in telephone |
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General Electric needed new research to regain prominence in light bulbs, so they hired a science-based person, Charles P. Steinmetz (1920) had been perfecting alternating current technology, he had been educated in Germany and started in mathematics, headed GE research lab, his work allowed them to build the dynamos wanted by the electric companies, focused on machinery of electrical systems as well as light bulbs, pushed for the creation of an industrial research lab, which they built in 1901, it was started in an old barn
He hired Willis R. Whitney to head the lab, Steinmetz wanted to be more of a researcher and not leave the lab, Whitney wanted engineering and Steinmetz wanted science, so Steinmetz started another lab, GE kept both labs in their name, Whitney hired William Coolidge and Irving Langmuir 1909, recruited two men to work on the tungsten filament in the light bulb, patents on improvements gave GE a light bulb monopoly, 30% of profits during the depression |
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| Trends in consumer culture |
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People did not want unique and rare objects; they wanted what everyone else had, fed well with mass production
Created American styled clothing in 1800, became harder to distinguish class from clothing
Bicycles were created for everyone to use, soaps became prominent with chemical technology |
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reduction in the work day, rise in the standard of living, re-definition of the relationship between leisure and industrial life
Manager starting to realize shorter days made people more productive; weekends were created with the introduction of Saturdays |
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Dependence on industrial technologies, like subways and trams took people to work and to leisure activities, concrete and metal stadiums built,
Women as consumers with more money and leisure time |
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| He patented the telephone in 1876 and maintained a small personal lab. After being granted the patent, he founded the bell telephone company in 1877, but chose to avoid the business end and stuck to the lab. He did a lot of basic research with the other branch – Boston Bell. He worked on perfecting and developing the telephone. His patents would expire in the 1880s, so he and the company worked to protect their telephone monopoly and restore it on local and long distance calling. He converted the Boston Bell Mechanical Department into an informal industrial research lab that would work on scientific and defensive research to rebuild the telephone monopoly. |
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| It was first patented in 1855 by Henry Bessemer. This is a specific process for making steel, and created a medium between cheap iron and expensive steel. The process itself involved blowing air through molten cast iron, and resulted in cheap steel. However, it was quick and hard to control. In 1872, Andrew Carnegie opened up the Edgar J. Thomson Works in Pittsburgh, a large scale Bessemer steel plant. This plant went through a rapid flow of materials, used chemists to research and improves steel, and was managed with vertical integration and the scientific method. Lastly, it was modified by Sidney Thomas and Percy Gilchrist in 1875 when they lined the converter with lime, which achieved good quality steel form ordinary iron. This led to steel being used to build bigger buildings, these buildings included elevators, and steel was used as a part of the structure to avoid compressive forces. |
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| Home of London’s Great Exhibition in 1851. The Great Exhibition was meant to showcase industrial works from around the world. The Crystal palace was an architectural feat of metal and glass. The building was made to be vast, as it needed to hold machinery and manufactures from many countries. The building needed to be made quickly and cheaply, and removed once the World Fair was over. It was built in Hyde Park. It looked like a giant glass greenhouse, and was designed by Joseph Paxton the chief gardener for the Duke of Devonshire. It had transparent walls and a glass roof. It reflected mass production of reliable materials, standardization of parts, and the efficient division of labor. New industrial methods made large amounts of cast iron and glass quickly, and it was all assembled in a short period. It was completed in six months, in January 1851. |
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| It is a type of camera that reached the U.S. in 1839. It was created by Louis Daguerre, who was the partner of Nicephone Niepce – the man who took the first successful photograph in 1826 using natural asphalt. Daguerre used silver copper plates and iodine to take pictures. He discovered that mercury vapor would settle on exposed parts of a plate and used a saline solution to fix the image. He dropped the exposure time of a picture from 8 hours to 30 minutes and the quality of the picture greatly increased as well. This demonstrated the importance of chemistry in improving photography. |
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| A transatlantic cable was wanted to connect Europe to the Americas with mass communication – the telegraph. The telegraph was Samuel Morse’s 1837 invention. In 1858, the first successful transatlantic cable was laid, under the supervision of Cyrus Field. The first messages took 8 hours to send, and signals slowly became fainter. The cable was not properly insulated and would shortly stop working in just under a month. Field was forced to defend himself against hoax accusations. William Thomson of Glasgow University fixed the cable’s inadequacies with scientific research. Field set out again eventually, with I.K Brunel’s ship, the Great Eastern. It finished laying the second transatlantic cable, and successful telegraph service was achieved in 1866. It created a much larger network among people and businesses. It demonstrated how science could be applied to technology, and the use of telegraphs was beneficial to the railroad industry. |
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| Menlo Park is one of the early industrial research labs. It was established in New Jersey in 1876 by Thomas Edison. It was the world’s first research and development facility. It worked on up to 70 projects at once in 1880. In 1877, the first major invention was the phonograph. When the phonograph gained attention, Menlo Park became world renown. The first successful incandescent light bulb was also created there, followed by the first underground electrical system in 1880. While he was headquartered there, he applied for about 400 patents. |
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| It was an idea of Austrian actress Hedy Lamarr. She and George Antheil collaborated on a patent for a secret communications system, which included a radio-controlled torpedo. In order to prevent the torpedo from becoming jammed by enemy signals, she construed the idea of a torpedo that would change frequencies at random. Antheil came up with the idea of using a player piano roll in the torpedo and transmitter so that changing frequencies would be in sync. The torpedo would change among 88 frequencies, and it was harder for enemies to detect and jam. They received their patent in 1942. Their invention was not used immediately by the military; however it was rediscovered in the 1950s and used as the basis for many future spread-spectrum radio inventions |
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| It was introduced by George Eastman in 1888. It could take up to 60 frames per second. He meant to circumvent the market of professional photography, which was complicated and expensive. It led to everyone being able to take pictures. Kodak made cameras smaller and cheaper. People could fill up the camera with pictures, and then send them to Eastman to be developed. It helped photography become a prominent art form for the masses of society. |
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| Caissons were needed on bedrock to build bridges, and construction workers would dig out the riverbed from inside the caissons during the building of bridges. One instance of the disease was during the building of James Eads’ St. Louis Bridge, when several of the workers fell ill and some died. Other names include the bends or decompression sickness. It is caused by the formation of gas bubbles in the body. When one goes deep underwater, increased air pressure leads to larger amounts of gas being held in solution of the body. When they rise to the surface, the pressure decreases and the gases come out. To the contrary, nitrogen accumulates. The nitrogen dissolves and forms tiny bubbles in the blood and body tissue. They can cause respiratory problems, paralysis, or blindness- possibly death. |
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| Morse was a Renaissance man and painter. The idea came to him in 1832, and he patented the electrical telegraph in 1837. The first successful Morse line was constructed between Washington and Baltimore in Cornell. When it was demonstrated in 1834, Joseph Henry claimed to have been working with the idea of an electrical telegraph. However, Morse devised a code for translating signals. He gave it language. Some impacts of his invention included how science was involved in the invention process, and it was a communication device built around electricity and magnetism. This led to a greater understanding of these two entities. |
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| Thomas Edison first came up with the idea of a motion picture machine, the Kinetoscope. However, he didn’t protect his patent. The Lumiere brothers came up with the cinematographe in 1895. It was much smaller than Edison’s Kinetograph, lightweight, and hand cranked. The device used a slower film speed, and reduced the clatter associated with the device. Louis also added the principle of intermittent movement using a device similar to that found in sewing machines. They organized private film screenings, which showed actuality films, such as workers leaving a factory. In 1907, they created the first practical color photography process with the autochrome plate. |
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| A Paris native, he witnessed the unveiling of the Cinematographe in 1895. Though he could not buy the machine, he was determined to produce moving pictures. He had his first film screening in April 1896. He started out showing others’ films, but soon made his own movies. His first films were one reel and one shot lasting about a minute. He was one of the first to combine theater and motion pictures. He wanted to tell stories through film. He created an early form of special effects through cinema. He created fantasy films, advertising films, and serious dramas. Once the novelty of his films wore off, he abandoned film production in 1912. In 1915, his studio was turned into a Variety Theatre and he became a showman, as before. In 1923, he became bankrupt. He vanished until he was recognized in the late 1920s. He made over five hundred films, which he financed, directed, photographed, and starred in. |
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